Migration experience and family patterns in the "promised land"

Journal of Family History

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 68-89

  Tolnay, Stewart E ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031617043     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319909802300104     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. See, for example, Reynolds Parley, "After the Starting Line: Blacks and Women in an Uphill Race," Demography 24 (1988): 477-95; Daniel T. Lichter, Diane K. McLaughlin, George Kephart, and David J. Landry, "Race and the Retreat from Marriage: A Shortage of Marriageable Men?" American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 781-99; Robert Schoen, "The Continuing Retreat from Marriage: Figures from 1983 U.S. Marital Status Life Tables," Sociology and Social Research 71 (1987): 108-9; Linda Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?" Demography 32 (1995): 483-507; and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
2. See, for example, Reynolds Parley, "After the Starting Line: Blacks and Women in an Uphill Race," Demography 24 (1988): 477-95; Daniel T. Lichter, Diane K. McLaughlin, George Kephart, and David J. Landry, "Race and the Retreat from Marriage: A Shortage of Marriageable Men?" American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 781-99; Robert Schoen, "The Continuing Retreat from Marriage: Figures from 1983 U.S. Marital Status Life Tables," Sociology and Social Research 71 (1987): 108-9; Linda Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?" Demography 32 (1995): 483-507; and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
3. See, for example, Reynolds Parley, "After the Starting Line: Blacks and Women in an Uphill Race," Demography 24 (1988): 477-95; Daniel T. Lichter, Diane K. McLaughlin, George Kephart, and David J. Landry, "Race and the Retreat from Marriage: A Shortage of Marriageable Men?" American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 781-99; Robert Schoen, "The Continuing Retreat from Marriage: Figures from 1983 U.S. Marital Status Life Tables," Sociology and Social Research 71 (1987): 108-9; Linda Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?" Demography 32 (1995): 483-507; and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
4. See, for example, Reynolds Parley, "After the Starting Line: Blacks and Women in an Uphill Race," Demography 24 (1988): 477-95; Daniel T. Lichter, Diane K. McLaughlin, George Kephart, and David J. Landry, "Race and the Retreat from Marriage: A Shortage of Marriageable Men?" American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 781-99; Robert Schoen, "The Continuing Retreat from Marriage: Figures from 1983 U.S. Marital Status Life Tables," Sociology and Social Research 71 (1987): 108-9; Linda Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?" Demography 32 (1995): 483-507; and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
5. See, for example, Reynolds Parley, "After the Starting Line: Blacks and Women in an Uphill Race," Demography 24 (1988): 477-95; Daniel T. Lichter, Diane K. McLaughlin, George Kephart, and David J. Landry, "Race and the Retreat from Marriage: A Shortage of Marriageable Men?" American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 781-99; Robert Schoen, "The Continuing Retreat from Marriage: Figures from 1983 U.S. Marital Status Life Tables," Sociology and Social Research 71 (1987): 108-9; Linda Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?" Demography 32 (1995): 483-507; and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
6. Herbert L. Smith and Phillips Cutright, "Thinking about Change in Illegitimacy Ratios: United States: 1963-1983," Demography 25 (1988): 235-47; Herbert L. Smith, S. Philip Morgan, and Tanya Koropeckyj-Cox, "A Decomposition of Trends in the Nonmarital Fertility Ratios of Blacks and Whites in the United States, 1960-1992" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Washington, DC, 19-23 August). A revised version of the paper by Smith, Morgan, and Koropeckyj-Cox was subsequently published in the journal Demography; however, the published version contained less detail than the presented paper.
7. Herbert L. Smith and Phillips Cutright, "Thinking about Change in Illegitimacy Ratios: United States: 1963-1983," Demography 25 (1988): 235-47; Herbert L. Smith, S. Philip Morgan, and Tanya Koropeckyj-Cox, "A Decomposition of Trends in the Nonmarital Fertility Ratios of Blacks and Whites in the United States, 1960-1992" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Washington, DC, 19-23 August). A revised version of the paper by Smith, Morgan, and Koropeckyj-Cox was subsequently published in the journal Demography; however, the published version contained less detail than the presented paper.
8. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged.
9. John D. Kasarda, "Urban Industrial Transition and the Underclass," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 26-47, and "Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs," in State of the Union: America in the 1990s. Vol. 1: Economic Trends, ed. Reynolds Parley (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 215-67.
10. John D. Kasarda, "Urban Industrial Transition and the Underclass," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 26-47, and "Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs," in State of the Union: America in the 1990s. Vol. 1: Economic Trends, ed. Reynolds Parley (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 215-67.
11. See, for example, Elijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 59-78, and Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Arline Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States," Population and Development Review 13 (1987): 245-79; Douglas Massey, "The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-First Century," Demography 33 (1996): 395-412; and Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underlcass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
12. See, for example, Elijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 59-78, and Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Arline Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States," Population and Development Review 13 (1987): 245-79; Douglas Massey, "The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-First Century," Demography 33 (1996): 395-412; and Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underlcass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
13. See, for example, Elijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 59-78, and Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Arline Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States," Population and Development Review 13 (1987): 245-79; Douglas Massey, "The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-First Century," Demography 33 (1996): 395-412; and Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underlcass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
14. See, for example, Elijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 59-78, and Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Arline Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States," Population and Development Review 13 (1987): 245-79; Douglas Massey, "The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-First Century," Demography 33 (1996): 395-412; and Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underlcass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
15. See, for example, Elijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (1989): 59-78, and Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Arline Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States," Population and Development Review 13 (1987): 245-79; Douglas Massey, "The Age of Extremes: Concentrated Affluence and Poverty in the Twenty-First Century," Demography 33 (1996): 395-412; and Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underlcass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
16. Good examples include St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harper & Row, 1962); W.E.B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (New York: Blom, [1899] 1990); and E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932) and The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966).
17. Good examples include St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harper & Row, 1962); W.E.B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (New York: Blom, [1899] 1990); and E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932) and The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966).
18. Good examples include St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harper & Row, 1962); W.E.B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (New York: Blom, [1899] 1990); and E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932) and The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966).
19. Good examples include St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harper & Row, 1962); W.E.B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (New York: Blom, [1899] 1990); and E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932) and The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966).
20. See, for example, Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How it Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); and Daniel P. Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Policy Planning and Research, 1965).
21. See, for example, Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How it Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); and Daniel P. Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Policy Planning and Research, 1965).
22. Stewart E. Tolnay, "The Great Migration and Changes in the Northern Black Family, 1940 to 1990," Social Forces 75 (1997): 1213-38.
23. For a description of the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) dataset, see Steven Ruggles and Matthew Sobek, Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 1.0 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Social History Research Laboratory, 1995).
24. For good descriptions of these changes, see Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Reynolds Farley and Albert I. Hermalin, "Family Stability: A Comparison of Trends between Blacks and Whites," American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 1-17; Steven Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 136-51; M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; and Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"
25. For good descriptions of these changes, see Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Reynolds Farley and Albert I. Hermalin, "Family Stability: A Comparison of Trends between Blacks and Whites," American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 1-17; Steven Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 136-51; M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; and Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"
26. For good descriptions of these changes, see Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Reynolds Farley and Albert I. Hermalin, "Family Stability: A Comparison of Trends between Blacks and Whites," American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 1-17; Steven Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 136-51; M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; and Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"
27. For good descriptions of these changes, see Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Reynolds Farley and Albert I. Hermalin, "Family Stability: A Comparison of Trends between Blacks and Whites," American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 1-17; Steven Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 136-51; M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; and Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"
28. For good descriptions of these changes, see Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Reynolds Farley and Albert I. Hermalin, "Family Stability: A Comparison of Trends between Blacks and Whites," American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 1-17; Steven Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure," American Sociological Review 59 (1994): 136-51; M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage Among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; and Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"
29. Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation," 10.
30. Tolnay, "The Great Migration and Changes in the Northern Black Family."
31. Smith, Morgan, and Koropeckyj-Cox, "A Decomposition of Trends."
32. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged.
33. See, for example, Ruth Dixon, "Explaining Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying." Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33; H. J. Habakkuk, Population and Economic Development Since 1750 (New York: Humanities Press, 1971); Abert I. Hermalin and Etienne van de Walle, "The Civil Code and Nuptiality: Empirical Investigations of a Hypothesis." in Population Patterns in the Past, ed. Ronald D. Lee New York: Academic Press, 1977), 71-111; and Nancy S. Landale and Stewart E. Tolnay "Group Differences in Economic Opportunity and the Timing of Marriage: Blacks and Whites in the Rural South, 1910," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 33-45.
34. See, for example, Ruth Dixon, "Explaining Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying." Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33; H. J. Habakkuk, Population and Economic Development Since 1750 (New York: Humanities Press, 1971); Abert I. Hermalin and Etienne van de Walle, "The Civil Code and Nuptiality: Empirical Investigations of a Hypothesis." in Population Patterns in the Past, ed. Ronald D. Lee New York: Academic Press, 1977), 71-111; and Nancy S. Landale and Stewart E. Tolnay "Group Differences in Economic Opportunity and the Timing of Marriage: Blacks and Whites in the Rural South, 1910," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 33-45.
35. See, for example, Ruth Dixon, "Explaining Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying." Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33; H. J. Habakkuk, Population and Economic Development Since 1750 (New York: Humanities Press, 1971); Abert I. Hermalin and Etienne van de Walle, "The Civil Code and Nuptiality: Empirical Investigations of a Hypothesis." in Population Patterns in the Past, ed. Ronald D. Lee New York: Academic Press, 1977), 71-111; and Nancy S. Landale and Stewart E. Tolnay "Group Differences in Economic Opportunity and the Timing of Marriage: Blacks and Whites in the Rural South, 1910," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 33-45.
36. See, for example, Ruth Dixon, "Explaining Cross-Cultural Variations in Age at Marriage and Proportions Never Marrying." Population Studies 25 (1971): 215-33; H. J. Habakkuk, Population and Economic Development Since 1750 (New York: Humanities Press, 1971); Abert I. Hermalin and Etienne van de Walle, "The Civil Code and Nuptiality: Empirical Investigations of a Hypothesis." in Population Patterns in the Past, ed. Ronald D. Lee New York: Academic Press, 1977), 71-111; and Nancy S. Landale and Stewart E. Tolnay "Group Differences in Economic Opportunity and the Timing of Marriage: Blacks and Whites in the Rural South, 1910," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 33-45.
37. Mark Testa and Marilyn Krogh, "The Effects of Employment on Marriage among Black Males in Inner-City Chicago," in The Decline in Marriage among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 59-95; and Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged. Testa and Krogh infer a negative effect of incarceration on marriage for Black men, but the relationship fails to attain statistical significance.
38. Mark Testa and Marilyn Krogh, "The Effects of Employment on Marriage among Black Males in Inner-City Chicago," in The Decline in Marriage among African Americans, ed. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 59-95; and Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged. Testa and Krogh infer a negative effect of incarceration on marriage for Black men, but the relationship fails to attain statistical significance.
39. Farley, "After the Starting Line."
40. Smith, Morgan, and Koropeckyj-Cox, "A Decomposition of Trends."
41. Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
42. For good reviews of this literature, see Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (1992): 1-61; and Steven Ruggles, "The Effects of AFDC on American Family Structure, 1940-1990," Journal of Family History 22 (1997): 307-25.
43. For good reviews of this literature, see Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (1992): 1-61; and Steven Ruggles, "The Effects of AFDC on American Family Structure, 1940-1990," Journal of Family History 22 (1997): 307-25.
44. For good reviews of this literature, see Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Robert Moffitt, "Incentive Effects of the U.S. Welfare System: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature 30 (1992): 1-61; and Steven Ruggles, "The Effects of AFDC on American Family Structure, 1940-1990," Journal of Family History 22 (1997): 307-25.
45. Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life," and Streetwise.
46. Geronimus, "On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality," 256.
47. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 167-68.
48. See, for example, Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States; and Moynihan, The Negro Family.
49. See, for example, Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States; and Moynihan, The Negro Family.
50. Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States, 364.
51. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 593-94.
52. Moynihan, The Negro Family
53. Lemann, The Promised Land, 31.
54. Stanley Lieberson and Christy A. Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks Residing in the North," Demography 13 (1976): 199-224.
55. Tolnay, "The Great Migration and Changes in the Northern Black Family."
56. Currently, the IPUMS includes public use microdata samples (PUMS) files for the following census years: 1850, 1880, 1900, 1910, 1940, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990. A public use sample for 1920 is being created and will be available in 1998. The reader is referred to Ruggles and Sobek, Integrated Public Use Microdata Series for more details. See also the special 1995 issue of the journal Historical Methods 28, No. 1.
57. Currently, the IPUMS includes public use microdata samples (PUMS) files for the following census years: 1850, 1880, 1900, 1910, 1940, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990. A public use sample for 1920 is being created and will be available in 1998. The reader is referred to Ruggles and Sobek, Integrated Public Use Microdata Series for more details. See also the special 1995 issue of the journal Historical Methods 28, No. 1.
58. See, for example, Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago: Aldine, 1965).
59. The 1950 PUMS also includes information that can be used to infer recent migration; however, it was recorded only for "sample line" persons, and it must be based on a comparison of current residence (in 1950) to residence only one year before the census. Because of these incompatibilities with the information for 1940, 1970, and 1990, I have chosen to not include data from 1950 in the analyses.
60. To avoid the possible effect of increasing immigration on the comparison of migrants and nonmigrants, the analyses are restricted to those who were born in the United States.
61. Tim Futing Liao, Interpreting Probability Models: Logit, Probit, and Other Generalized Linear Models (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994).
62. For example, Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage; Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure"; and Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation."
63. For example, Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage; Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure"; and Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation."
64. For example, Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage; Ruggles, "The Origins of African-American Family Structure"; and Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation."
65. See, for example, Stanley Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of the Income Differences Found between Migrants and Northern-Born Blacks," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 940-66; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; and Larry H. Long and Lynne R. Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences between Black and White Men in the North," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1975): 1391-1409.
66. See, for example, Stanley Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of the Income Differences Found between Migrants and Northern-Born Blacks," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 940-66; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; and Larry H. Long and Lynne R. Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences between Black and White Men in the North," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1975): 1391-1409.
67. See, for example, Stanley Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of the Income Differences Found between Migrants and Northern-Born Blacks," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 940-66; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; and Larry H. Long and Lynne R. Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences between Black and White Men in the North," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1975): 1391-1409.
68. These ratios are based on the number of children 0 to 14 years of age, used in the analysis of the living arrangements of children. The comparable ratios for Whites are 10:1, 7:1, and 6:1.
69. Identification of return migrants using only residence at the time of the census and five years before cannot capture all southerners who migrated to the North, then moved back to the South at some point during their lifetimes. Therefore, this supplementary analysis is suggestive rather than definitive. Interestingly, the family patterns of Whites in the North are affected much more strongly by the addition of return migrants to the group of southern migrants remaining in the North. This is because of the greater number of White return migrants and the greater selectivity of return migration for Whites.
70. For example, Anderson, Streetwise; Massey, "The Age of Extremes"; and Massey and Denton, American Apartheid.
71. For example, Anderson, Streetwise; Massey, "The Age of Extremes"; and Massey and Denton, American Apartheid.
72. For example, Anderson, Streetwise; Massey, "The Age of Extremes"; and Massey and Denton, American Apartheid.
73. See, for example, Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of Income Differences"; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; Larry H. Long, "Poverty Status and Receipt of Welfare among Migrants and Nonmigrants in Large Cities," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 46-56; Long and Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences"; and Stanley Masters, "Are Black Migrants from the South to Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There?" Journal of Human Resources 8 (1972): 411-23.
74. See, for example, Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of Income Differences"; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; Larry H. Long, "Poverty Status and Receipt of Welfare among Migrants and Nonmigrants in Large Cities," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 46-56; Long and Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences"; and Stanley Masters, "Are Black Migrants from the South to Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There?" Journal of Human Resources 8 (1972): 411-23.
75. See, for example, Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of Income Differences"; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; Larry H. Long, "Poverty Status and Receipt of Welfare among Migrants and Nonmigrants in Large Cities," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 46-56; Long and Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences"; and Stanley Masters, "Are Black Migrants from the South to Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There?" Journal of Human Resources 8 (1972): 411-23.
76. See, for example, Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of Income Differences"; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; Larry H. Long, "Poverty Status and Receipt of Welfare among Migrants and Nonmigrants in Large Cities," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 46-56; Long and Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences"; and Stanley Masters, "Are Black Migrants from the South to Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There?" Journal of Human Resources 8 (1972): 411-23.
77. See, for example, Lieberson, "A Reconsideration of Income Differences"; Lieberson and Wilkinson, "A Comparison between Northern and Southern Blacks"; Larry H. Long, "Poverty Status and Receipt of Welfare among Migrants and Nonmigrants in Large Cities," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 46-56; Long and Heltman, "Migration and Income Differences"; and Stanley Masters, "Are Black Migrants from the South to Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There?" Journal of Human Resources 8 (1972): 411-23.