Goitre, Cretinism and Iodine in South Asia: Historical Perspectives on a Continuing Scourge

Medical History

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 47-67

  Miles, M ^a,b  

^a Mental Health Centre   (Pakistan)

^b NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IODINE;

ARTICLE; ASIA; CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM; GOITER; HISTORY; HUMAN;

ASIA; CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM; GOITER; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; HUMANS; IODINE;

EID: 0031603998     PISSN: 00257273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S002572730006333X     Document Type: Review

References (257)

1. See bibliography in Hugh M Sinclair (ed.), The work of Sir Robert McCarrison, London, Faber & Faber, 1953, pp. 307-12. Foundation studies were: Robert McCarrison, 'Observations on endemic goitre in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', Lancet, 1906, i: 1110-11; idem, 'Observations on endemic cretinism in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', ibid., 1908, ii: 1275-80.
2. See bibliography in Hugh M Sinclair (ed.), The work of Sir Robert McCarrison, London, Faber & Faber, 1953, pp. 307-12. Foundation studies were: Robert McCarrison, 'Observations on endemic goitre in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', Lancet, 1906, i: 1110-11; idem, 'Observations on endemic cretinism in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', ibid., 1908, ii: 1275-80.
3. See bibliography in Hugh M Sinclair (ed.), The work of Sir Robert McCarrison, London, Faber & Faber, 1953, pp. 307-12. Foundation studies were: Robert McCarrison, 'Observations on endemic goitre in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', Lancet, 1906, i: 1110-11; idem, 'Observations on endemic cretinism in the Chitral and Gilgit valleys', ibid., 1908, ii: 1275-80.
4. 'Extract of a letter from D. Scott Esq. Commissioner, Rungpore District, communicated by G. Swinton, etc.', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1825, 1: 367. Senior administrator George Swinton had been Scott's fellow student at Fort William College, 1802-1804.
5. Mountford J Bramley, 'Some account of the bronchocele, or goitre of Nipal, and of the Cis, and Trans-Himalayan regions', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1833, 6: 181-264.
6. R S Pandey and Lal Advani, Perspectives in disability and rehabilitation, New Delhi, Vikas, 1995, p. 33.
7. H K M Yusuf, S Quazi, M N Islam, T Hoque, K M Rahman, M Mohiduzzaman, et al., 'Current status of iodine-deficiency disorders in Bangladesh', Lancet, 1994, i: 1367-8.
8. James S Lawson and Vivian Lin, 'Health status differentials in the People's Republic of China', Am. J. publ. Hlth, 1994, 84: 737-41.
9. The national goitre control programme. A blueprint for its intensification, Nutrition Foundation of India, 1983, pp. 10-11, 55-6.
10. Sanskrit terms and Asian place names are quoted from various sources in different periods. Transliteration and spelling are not systematized.
11. Ranes C Chakravorty, 'Head and neck diseases in an ancient Indian surgical text', Med. Hist., 1971, 15: 393-6. Compilation of the Sushruta samhita may have begun as early as 200 BC. It is usually dated two or three centuries later.
12. K K L Bhishagratna, An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, 3 vols, Varanasi, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1981, vol. 2, p. 78. Modern interpretation of symptoms listed by Sushruta is given by G D Singhal, L M Singh and K P Singh, Diagnostic considerations in ancient Indian surgery, Allahabad, Singhal, 1972, p. 171.
13. K K L Bhishagratna, An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, 3 vols, Varanasi, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1981, vol. 2, p. 78. Modern interpretation of symptoms listed by Sushruta is given by G D Singhal, L M Singh and K P Singh, Diagnostic considerations in ancient Indian surgery, Allahabad, Singhal, 1972, p. 171.
14. G D Singhal and L M Singh, Operative considerations in ancient Indian surgery, Varanasi, Singhal Publications, 1982, pp. 352-4.
15. Bhishagratna, op. cit., note 10 above, p. 78.
16. Basil S Hetzel, The story of iodine deficiency, Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 4. Victor C Medvei, A history of endocrinology, Lancaster, MTP Press, 1982, pp. 15-18, 86, 189. Saburo Miyasita, 'An historical analysis of Chinese drugs in the treatment of hormonal diseases, goitre and diabetes mellitus', Am. J. Chinese Med., 1980, 8: 17-25.
17. Basil S Hetzel, The story of iodine deficiency, Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 4. Victor C Medvei, A history of endocrinology, Lancaster, MTP Press, 1982, pp. 15-18, 86, 189. Saburo Miyasita, 'An historical analysis of Chinese drugs in the treatment of hormonal diseases, goitre and diabetes mellitus', Am. J. Chinese Med., 1980, 8: 17-25.
18. Basil S Hetzel, The story of iodine deficiency, Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 4. Victor C Medvei, A history of endocrinology, Lancaster, MTP Press, 1982, pp. 15-18, 86, 189. Saburo Miyasita, 'An historical analysis of Chinese drugs in the treatment of hormonal diseases, goitre and diabetes mellitus', Am. J. Chinese Med., 1980, 8: 17-25.
19. J Needham, Clerks and craftsmen in China and the west, Cambridge University Press, 1970, pp. 298-302. One Chinese official, noted in the fourth century BC, did not seek these remedies: "Pitcherneck with the big goitre advised Duke Huan of Ch'i; the Duke was so pleased with him that when he looked at normal men their necks were too scrawny." Chuang-tzu. The seven inner chapters, transi. A C Graham, London, Allen & Unwin, 1981, p. 80.
20. J Needham, Clerks and craftsmen in China and the west, Cambridge University Press, 1970, pp. 298-302. One Chinese official, noted in the fourth century BC, did not seek these remedies: "Pitcherneck with the big goitre advised Duke Huan of Ch'i; the Duke was so pleased with him that when he looked at normal men their necks were too scrawny." Chuang-tzu. The seven inner chapters, transi. A C Graham, London, Allen & Unwin, 1981, p. 80.
21. Needham, ibid., p. 300.
22. Early Sino-Indian medical exchange through Buddhist missionaries is outlined by Paul Unschuld, 'The Chinese reception of Indian medicine in the first millennium A.D.', Bull. Hist. Med., 1979, 53: 329-45. Knowledge of seaweed treatment might indeed have reached India several times, only to disappear across centuries.
23. T A Wise, Commentary on the Hindu system of medicine, Calcutta, Thacker, Ostell and Lepage, 1845, pp. 313-15.
24. K N N Sen Gupta, The Ayurvedic system of medicine, rev. ed., 3 vols., Calcutta, Chatterjee, 1909, vol. 1, pp. 280-4; vol. 2, pp. 536-9.
25. K N N Sen Gupta, The Ayurvedic system of medicine, rev. ed., 3 vols., Calcutta, Chatterjee, 1909, vol. 1, pp. 280-4; vol. 2, pp. 536-9.
26. D Wright, 'A few notes from Nepaul', Indian med. Gaz., 1867, 2: 194-6, p. 196.
27. W R Lawrence, The valley of Kashmir, London, Henry Frowde, 1895, pp. 74-7.
28. Kenneth G Zysk, Asceticism and healing in ancient India. Medicine in the Buddhist monastery, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 98-101.
29. The Vinaya Pitakam Vol. I. The Mahâvagga, edited by Hermann Oldenberg, London, Luzac & Company for the Pali Text Society, 1964, p. 91.
30. Sir Ralph Turner, A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages, London, Oxford University Press, 1966, pp. 213, 218, 223, 244, etc.
31. Ibid., Introduction, p. x.
32. Gerard N Burrow and Jeffrey Hopkins, 'Goiter in Tibetan medicine', Yale J. biol. Med., 1978, 51: 441-7, pp. 444-5.
33. W R Morse, Tibetan medicine', J. W. China Border Res. Soc., 1929, 3: 114-33, p. 128. At Penang, M E Scriven, 'Goitre treated successfully with the thyroid extract', Indian med. Rec., 1902, 22: 120-1, instructed a patient to mince up sheeps' thyroids "nicely with pepper and salt to taste" (p. 120), but saw no benefit over seven weeks. He then prescribed "thyroid extract tabloids" successfully (p. 120). Scriven commented sceptically on experiences in the 1880s, "when the biniodide of mercury pendulum was in full swing" (p. 121).
34. W R Morse, Tibetan medicine', J. W. China Border Res. Soc., 1929, 3: 114-33, p. 128. At Penang, M E Scriven, 'Goitre treated successfully with the thyroid extract', Indian med. Rec., 1902, 22: 120-1, instructed a patient to mince up sheeps' thyroids "nicely with pepper and salt to taste" (p. 120), but saw no benefit over seven weeks. He then prescribed "thyroid extract tabloids" successfully (p. 120). Scriven commented sceptically on experiences in the 1880s, "when the biniodide of mercury pendulum was in full swing" (p. 121).
35. Baruch S Blumberg, 'Goiter in Gandhara. A representation in a second to third century AD frieze', J. Am. med. Ass., 1964, 189: 1008-12. Exophthalmic goitre was, however, considered very rare in India by J Fayrer, 'On bronchocele', Lancet, 1874, ii: 580-1, 617-18, p. 581; and by H Stott, B B Bhatia, R S Lal and K C Rai, 'The distribution and cause of endemic goitre in the United Provinces', Indian J. med. Res., 1931, 18: 1059-85, p. 1064.
36. Baruch S Blumberg, 'Goiter in Gandhara. A representation in a second to third century AD frieze', J. Am. med. Ass., 1964, 189: 1008-12. Exophthalmic goitre was, however, considered very rare in India by J Fayrer, 'On bronchocele', Lancet, 1874, ii: 580-1, 617-18, p. 581; and by H Stott, B B Bhatia, R S Lal and K C Rai, 'The distribution and cause of endemic goitre in the United Provinces', Indian J. med. Res., 1931, 18: 1059-85, p. 1064.
37. Baruch S Blumberg, 'Goiter in Gandhara. A representation in a second to third century AD frieze', J. Am. med. Ass., 1964, 189: 1008-12. Exophthalmic goitre was, however, considered very rare in India by J Fayrer, 'On bronchocele', Lancet, 1874, ii: 580-1, 617-18, p. 581; and by H Stott, B B Bhatia, R S Lal and K C Rai, 'The distribution and cause of endemic goitre in the United Provinces', Indian J. med. Res., 1931, 18: 1059-85, p. 1064.
38. F Merke, History and iconography of endemic goitre and cretinism, transl. D Q Stephenson, Bern, Huber, 1984, p. 266. An earlier literary link, which escaped Merke, appeared in a fifth-century CE Irish legal text listing twelve varieties of fool. One is the boicmell "under whose neck are the soft lumps" - presumably a goitrous fool. See R M Smith, 'The advice to Doidin', Ériu, 1932, 11: 66-85.
39. F Merke, History and iconography of endemic goitre and cretinism, transl. D Q Stephenson, Bern, Huber, 1984, p. 266. An earlier literary link, which escaped Merke, appeared in a fifth-century CE Irish legal text listing twelve varieties of fool. One is the boicmell "under whose neck are the soft lumps" -presumably a goitrous fool. See R M Smith, 'The advice to Doidin', Ériu, 1932, 11: 66-85.
40. Merke, op. cit., note 28 above, p. 2.
41. Rudolf Wittkower, 'Marvels of the East. A study in the history of monsters', J. Warburg and Courtauld Inst., 1942, 5: 159-97. Wittkower conceded that "Sometimes real observation may have been at the bottom of the story" (p. 164).
42. Albrecht von Haller, Elements physiologiœ corporis humani, 8 vols, Lausanne, Grasset, 1763, vol. 5, bk 17, p. 570.
43. Horace-Bénédicte de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes, 4 vols, Neuchâtel, Fauche-Borel, 1803, vol. 4, pp. 127, 264.
44. Ibid., pp. 126-7.
45. Merke, op. cit., note 28 above, pp. 132-5.
46. See Jacques Bongars (ed.), Gesta dei per Francos, sive orientalium expeditionum et regni Francorum hierosolymitani historia, Hanover, 1611, pp. 1112-13.
47. Claude Lecouteux, Les nains et les elfes au moyen âge, Paris, Editions Imago, 1988, p. 21.
48. Abul Fazl, Aín i Akbarí, 3 vols, Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1891, vol. 2, transl. H S Jarrett, p. 150.
49. The travels of Marco Polo the Venetian, Everyman's library No. 306, London, Dent, 1908, reprinted 1927, p. 95.
50. Ghulam Husain Salim, Riyazu-s-Salatin, transl. Maulavi Abdus Salam, Calcutta, 1902-1904, p. 38.
51. Samuel Turner, An account of an embassy to the court of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet, 2nd ed., London, Bulmer and Nicol, 1806, pp. 86-7.
52. R Saunders, 'Some account of the vegetable and mineral productions of Boutan and Thibet', Phil. Trans. R. Soc., 1789, 79: 79-111.
53. Ibid., p. 99.
54. Sir George Staunton, An authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, etc., 2 vols, London, W Bulmer for G Nicol, 1797, vol. 2, p. 202. The same proportion was found a century later at Mussoorie by W P Heher, 'Acute bronchocele', Indian med. Gaz., 1881, 16: 81-2.
55. Sir George Staunton, An authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, etc., 2 vols, London, W Bulmer for G Nicol, 1797, vol. 2, p. 202. The same proportion was found a century later at Mussoorie by W P Heher, 'Acute bronchocele', Indian med. Gaz., 1881, 16: 81-2.
56. Thomas T Cooper, Travels of a pioneer of commerce in pigtail and petticoats, London, John Murray, 1871, p. 304.
57. William Kirkpatrick, An account of the kingdom of Nepaul, London, Miller, 1811, pp. 173-4.
58. Ibid.
59. McCarrison, op. cit., note 1 above, 1908, p. 1277. Thomas Schlich, 'Changing disease identities: cretinism, politics and surgery (1844-1892)', Med. Hist., 1994, 38: 421-43, on pp. 428-9 cites sources from the 1840s in Germany, where a similar theme occurred frequently.
60. McCarrison, op. cit., note 1 above, 1908, p. 1277. Thomas Schlich, 'Changing disease identities: cretinism, politics and surgery (1844-1892)', Med. Hist., 1994, 38: 421-43, on pp. 428-9 cites sources from the 1840s in Germany, where a similar theme occurred frequently.
61. Wright, op. cit., note 19 above, p. 195.
62. F Buchanan, An account of the district of Bhagalpur in 1810-11, Patna, Bihar & Orissa Research Society, 1939, pp. 174-5. Buchanan's district reports on Purnea, Bihar and Patna, and Shahabad, all mention that goitres were common. Idem An account of the district of Purnea in 1809-10, same publisher, 1928, p. 124. Idem, An account of the district of Shahabad in 1809-10, same publisher, 1934, p. 156. Idem, An account of the district of Bihar and Patna in 1811-12, same publisher, no date, p. 273. In the latter report, on p. 274, Buchanan gave the first colonial description of another common north Indian disabling condition, lathyrism, later linked with dietary deficiency.
63. F Buchanan, An account of the district of Bhagalpur in 1810-11, Patna, Bihar & Orissa Research Society, 1939, pp. 174-5. Buchanan's district reports on Purnea, Bihar and Patna, and Shahabad, all mention that goitres were common. Idem An account of the district of Purnea in 1809-10, same publisher, 1928, p. 124. Idem, An account of the district of Shahabad in 1809-10, same publisher, 1934, p. 156. Idem, An account of the district of Bihar and Patna in 1811-12, same publisher, no date, p. 273. In the latter report, on p. 274, Buchanan gave the first colonial description of another common north Indian disabling condition, lathyrism, later linked with dietary deficiency.
64. F Buchanan, An account of the district of Bhagalpur in 1810-11, Patna, Bihar & Orissa Research Society, 1939, pp. 174-5. Buchanan's district reports on Purnea, Bihar and Patna, and Shahabad, all mention that goitres were common. Idem An account of the district of Purnea in 1809-10, same publisher, 1928, p. 124. Idem, An account of the district of Shahabad in 1809-10, same publisher, 1934, p. 156. Idem, An account of the district of Bihar and Patna in 1811-12, same publisher, no date, p. 273. In the latter report, on p. 274, Buchanan gave the first colonial description of another common north Indian disabling condition, lathyrism, later linked with dietary deficiency.
65. F Buchanan, An account of the district of Bhagalpur in 1810-11, Patna, Bihar & Orissa Research Society, 1939, pp. 174-5. Buchanan's district reports on Purnea, Bihar and Patna, and Shahabad, all mention that goitres were common. Idem An account of the district of Purnea in 1809-10, same publisher, 1928, p. 124. Idem, An account of the district of Shahabad in 1809-10, same publisher, 1934, p. 156. Idem, An account of the district of Bihar and Patna in 1811-12, same publisher, no date, p. 273. In the latter report, on p. 274, Buchanan gave the first colonial description of another common north Indian disabling condition, lathyrism, later linked with dietary deficiency.
66. Mir Izzet Ullah, 'Travels beyond the Himalaya', J. R. Asiat. Soc., 1843, 7: 283-342, pp. 289, 303.
67. William Moorcroft and George Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab . . . from 1819 to 1825, London, John Murray, 1841, reprinted at Karachi, Oxford University Press, 1979, vol. 2, pp. 25-6.
68. George W Traill, 'Statistical sketch of Kamaon', Asiatic Researches, 1828, 16: 137-234, pp. 215-16. See also L S S O'Malley, The Indian Civil Service: 1601-1930, London, John Murray, 1931, p. 54.
69. George W Traill, 'Statistical sketch of Kamaon', Asiatic Researches, 1828, 16: 137-234, pp. 215-16. See also L S S O'Malley, The Indian Civil Service: 1601-1930, London, John Murray, 1931, p. 54.
70. Amir, communicated by Bryan Houghton Hodgson, 'Route from Cathmandu, in Nepal, to Täzedo, on the Chinese frontier', Asiatic Researches, 1832, 17: 513-34, p. 533.
71. Thomas Skinner, Excursions in India, 2nd ed., London, Bentley, 1833, vol. 1, p. 305.
72. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 36-8. By contrast, Staunton, op. cit., note 43 above, p. 203. found that goitrous idiots were "considered in some degree sacred" and were cherished by their families.
73. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 36-8. By contrast, Staunton, op. cit., note 43 above, p. 203. found that goitrous idiots were "considered in some degree sacred" and were cherished by their families.
74. P Breton, 'Medical topography of the districts of Ramghur, Chota Nagpore, Sirgooja, and Sumbhulpore', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1830, 2: 234-46.
75. J Evans, 'Observations on the medical topography of Tirhoot', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1829, 4: 241-6, pp. 245-6.
76. J Leslie, 'A sketch of the medical topography of Gowhattee', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1833, 6: 33-63, p. 57.
77. A L J Bayle, Bibliothèque de Thérapeutique, 4 vols, Paris, Gabon, 1828-37, vol. 1, pp. 193-7.
78. W Twining, 'Observations on some of the effects of iodine', Trans. med. Phvsical Soc., Calcutta, 1833, 6: 386-91.
79. Scott, op. cit., note 2 above. Adam White, Memoir of the late David Scott, Esq., edited and annotated by Archibald Watson, Calcutta, 1832, p. 53. See also Nirode K Barooah, David Scott in north-east India 1802-1831. A study in British paternalism. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970.
80. Scott, op. cit., note 2 above. Adam White, Memoir of the late David Scott, Esq., edited and annotated by Archibald Watson, Calcutta, 1832, p. 53. See also Nirode K Barooah, David Scott in north-east India 1802-1831. A study in British paternalism. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970.
81. Scott, op. cit., note 2 above. Adam White, Memoir of the late David Scott, Esq., edited and annotated by Archibald Watson, Calcutta, 1832, p. 53. See also Nirode K Barooah, David Scott in north-east India 1802-1831. A study in British paternalism. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970.
82. Bramley, op. cit, note 3 above.
83. A Campbell, 'Case of laryngitis, complicated with bronchocele', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1836, 8 (1): xviii-xix.
84. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 182.
85. Ibid., pp. 181, 204. Mountford Joseph Bramley (1803-37) gained his MRCS in 1825. Appointed Assistant Surgeon, Bengal, in August 1829, he was posted to Nepal where he made his study of goitre. He became the first Principal of the Medical College, Calcutta, in 1835. (See D G Crawford, Roll of the Indian Medical Service 1615-1930, London, Thacker, 1930.)
86. Ibid., pp. 181, 204. Mountford Joseph Bramley (1803-37) gained his MRCS in 1825. Appointed Assistant Surgeon, Bengal, in August 1829, he was posted to Nepal where he made his study of goitre. He became the first Principal of the Medical College, Calcutta, in 1835. (See D G Crawford, Roll of the Indian Medical Service 1615-1930, London, Thacker, 1930.)
87. Bernard Courtois, Session of the Académie des Sciences, 6 December 1813, report by N Clément and J L Gay-Lussac, cited by Merke, op. cit., note 28 above, p. 9.
88. [J-F] Coindet, 'Découverte d'un nouveau remède contre le goître', Ann. Chim. Phys., 1820, 15: 49-59. Some later commentators, confusing different members of the Coindet family, or following Johnson (see note 68 below), have given various initials to this paper's author, who was in fact Dr Jean-François Coindet, father of Dr Jean-Charles Walker Coindet (known as Charles W Coindet) and of Jean-Jacques-François Coindet (known as John Coindet).
89. James R Johnson, Observations on the remarkable effects of iodine in bronchocele and scrophula. Being a translation of three memoirs published by J. R. Coindet, M.D. of Geneva, London, Longman, Hurst, et al., 1821, p. 8.
90. [J-F] Coindet, 'Observations on the use of iodine as a remedy for bronchocele', London med. phys. J., 1820, 44: 486-9.
91. Johnson, op. cit., note 68 above.
92. H S Roots, 'A case of bronchocele', Lancet, 9 Nov. 1823: 201-3.
93. E Barlow, 'A case of bronchocele successfully treated by iodine', Edinb. med. surg. J., 1824, 21: 337-8.
94. Iodine treatment for goitre might also have reached India via the experiments of Prout and Elliotson, 1816-19, and the latter's clinical teaching in London. See William Prout, Chemistry, meteorology, and the function of digestion, London, Pickering, 1834, fn. pp. 113-14; and 'Obituary: John Elliotson, M.D. Cantab., F.R.S.', Lancet, 1868, ii: 203-4. Adverse reports of iodine overdosing and hyperthyroidism which beset Coindet within months of his first publication, might have made Prout and Elliotson reticent about their priority in this field. A recent search in St Thomas's Hospital archives has yet to find any evidence supporting Prout's claim of iodine use in treating goitre there before 1820.
95. Iodine treatment for goitre might also have reached India via the experiments of Prout and Elliotson, 1816-19, and the latter's clinical teaching in London. See William Prout, Chemistry, meteorology, and the function of digestion, London, Pickering, 1834, fn. pp. 113-14; and 'Obituary: John Elliotson, M.D. Cantab., F.R.S.', Lancet, 1868, ii: 203-4. Adverse reports of iodine overdosing and hyperthyroidism which beset Coindet within months of his first publication, might have made Prout and Elliotson reticent about their priority in this field. A recent search in St Thomas's Hospital archives has yet to find any evidence supporting Prout's claim of iodine use in treating goitre there before 1820.
96. See, e.g., reflections by Alex G Stewart, 'For debate: drifting continents and endemic goitre in northern Pakistan', Br. med. J., 1990, i: 1507-12.
97. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 186-9.
98. Ibid., p. 195.
99. Ibid., pp. 195, 239.
100. Ibid., p. 245.
101. Ibid., p. 263.
102. Staunton, op. cit., note 43 above, vol. 2, p. 202.
103. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 206. Cretinism was much more evident to a later Presidency Surgeon in Nepal: John Brown, 'Note on the prevalence of goitre', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1859, 6: 176-7. John M'Clelland further noted that Bramley's observations were limited by his being "attached to the court of a native state": Sketch of the medical topography, or climate and soils, of Bengal and the N. W. Provinces, London, Churchill, 1859, pp. 105-6.
104. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 206. Cretinism was much more evident to a later Presidency Surgeon in Nepal: John Brown, 'Note on the prevalence of goitre', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1859, 6: 176-7. John M'Clelland further noted that Bramley's observations were limited by his being "attached to the court of a native state": Sketch of the medical topography, or climate and soils, of Bengal and the N. W. Provinces, London, Churchill, 1859, pp. 105-6.
105. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 206. Cretinism was much more evident to a later Presidency Surgeon in Nepal: John Brown, 'Note on the prevalence of goitre', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1859, 6: 176-7. John M'Clelland further noted that Bramley's observations were limited by his being "attached to the court of a native state": Sketch of the medical topography, or climate and soils, of Bengal and the N. W. Provinces, London, Churchill, 1859, pp. 105-6.
106. Frederick H Brett, A practical essay on some of the principal surgical diseases of India, Calcutta, Thacker, 1840, p. 113.
107. J McClelland, 'Observations on goître', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1835, 7: 145-55. More detailed observations appeared in ibid., op. cit., note 81 above, pp. v-vi, 63-111.
108. J McClelland, 'Observations on goître', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1835, 7: 145-55. More detailed observations appeared in ibid., op. cit., note 81 above, pp. v-vi, 63-111.
109. Ibid., op. cit., note 81 above, p. 106.
110. A Campbell, 'Observations on the congenital goitre in animals, which occurs in Nipal', Trans. med. Physical Soc., Calcutta, 1835, 7: 1-8.
111. Campbell, op. cit., note 63 above.
112. Kenneth Norman MacDonald, 'Notes on some of the diseases most frequently met with among the natives of Tirhoot', Indian med. Gaz., 1866, 1: 323-4.
113. N C Macnamara, 'Note on the use of biniodide of mercury', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1862, 8 (15): 184-6, p. 184.
114. See, e.g., Thomas Prosser, An account and method of cure of the bronchocele, or Derby neck, London, 1769.
115. Hugh Norris, 'Notice of a remarkable disease, analogous to cretinism, existing in a small village in the West of England', Medical Times, 1848, 17: 257-8.
116. John C Lettsom, 'The histories of two cases of bronchocele', Mem. med. Soc. London, 1792, 3: 489-93. See also Timothy Lane, 'An account of two cases of a bronchocele', ibid., 1792, 1: 217-21, written in 1776, referring back to 1764. Lettsom indicates that burnt sponge began to be used by physicians after 1750. Bradford Wilmer, in Cases and remarks in surgery, London, Longman, 1779, pp. 233-54, gave details of medicines involving burnt sponge, the recipes of which had been a family secret in use more than twenty years earlier at Coventry (p. 250).
117. John C Lettsom, 'The histories of two cases of bronchocele', Mem. med. Soc. London, 1792, 3: 489-93. See also Timothy Lane, 'An account of two cases of a bronchocele', ibid., 1792, 1: 217-21, written in 1776, referring back to 1764. Lettsom indicates that burnt sponge began to be used by physicians after 1750. Bradford Wilmer, in Cases and remarks in surgery, London, Longman, 1779, pp. 233-54, gave details of medicines involving burnt sponge, the recipes of which had been a family secret in use more than twenty years earlier at Coventry (p. 250).
118. John C Lettsom, 'The histories of two cases of bronchocele', Mem. med. Soc. London, 1792, 3: 489-93. See also Timothy Lane, 'An account of two cases of a bronchocele', ibid., 1792, 1: 217-21, written in 1776, referring back to 1764. Lettsom indicates that burnt sponge began to be used by physicians after 1750. Bradford Wilmer, in Cases and remarks in surgery, London, Longman, 1779, pp. 233-54, gave details of medicines involving burnt sponge, the recipes of which had been a family secret in use more than twenty years earlier at Coventry (p. 250).
119. Frederic J Mouat, 'Memorandum on the use of biniodide of mercury, in combination with the rays of the sun for the cure of goitre', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1857, 4: 436-40, p. 439. Mouat, Inspector of Jails and Dispensaries, Bengal, communicated this work which mostly comprised letters from Major James G Holmes and Captain William R Cunningham. The latter do not seem to have had medical training.
120. Ibid., p. 437.
121. Macnamara, op. cit., note 88 above. N C Macnamara and A [sic] M Greenhow, 'On the treatment of goitre with the biniodide-of-mercury ointment', Ann. military naval Surg. trop. Med. Hyg., 1864, 1: 255-7. Macnamara (op. cit., note 88 above) emphasized care in preparing the ointment from pure, active materials.
122. Macnamara, op. cit., note 88 above. N C Macnamara and A [sic] M Greenhow, 'On the treatment of goitre with the biniodide-of-mercury ointment', Ann. military naval Surg. trop. Med. Hyg., 1864, 1: 255-7. Macnamara (op. cit., note 88 above) emphasized care in preparing the ointment from pure, active materials.
123. J C Whishaw, 'The treatment of goïtre by the biniodide-of-mercury ointment', Lancet, 1863, ii: 438. Twenty years later, the method was still "entirely successful" according to Albert A Gore, 'Acute goitre: its aetiology: thirty cases treated by the application of biniodide of mercury ointment', Indian med. Gaz., 1884, 19: 354-8, p. 357.
124. J C Whishaw, 'The treatment of goïtre by the biniodide-of-mercury ointment', Lancet, 1863, ii: 438. Twenty years later, the method was still "entirely successful" according to Albert A Gore, 'Acute goitre: its aetiology: thirty cases treated by the application of biniodide of mercury ointment', Indian med. Gaz., 1884, 19: 354-8, p. 357.
125. Henry Martineau Greenhow, 'Observations on goitre, as seen in Oude', Indian Ann. med. Sci., 1859, 6 (11): 435-51, p. 449.
126. E E Waters, 'Notes on endemic goitre in northeast Bengal', Br. med. J., 1897, ii: 650-1.
127. Traill, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 215.
128. M'Clelland, op. cit, note 81 above, p. 84.
129. Colonel MacMahon's comment did not reach the medical literature. D C J Ibbetson quoted it in Report on the census of the Punjáb taken on the 17th of February 1881, Calcutta, 1883, vol. 1, p. 409.
130. Gazetteer of the Hoshiarpur district 1883-4, Lahore, Punjab Government, [1884], p. 32.
131. Lawrence, op. cit., note 20 above, p. 232.
132. Ibid., pp. 34, 293, 460.
133. H H Risley and E A Gait, Census of India, 1901. Volume I. India. Part I. Report, Calcutta, 1903, pp. 131-6. See also Ibbetson, op. cit., note 100 above, pp. 408-11.
134. H H Risley and E A Gait, Census of India, 1901. Volume I. India. Part I. Report, Calcutta, 1903, pp. 131-6. See also Ibbetson, op. cit., note 100 above, pp. 408-11.
135. Stott, et al., op. cit., note 27 above.
136. H Stott, 'Distribution of simple goitre in Derbyshire', Indian med. Gaz., 1935, 70: 152-4, p. 152.
137. F N Macnamara, Climate and medical topography in the relation to the disease-distribution of the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan districts of British India, London, Longmans, 1880.
138. Ibid., p. 282.
139. Ibid., p. 249.
140. C Sconce, 'Chumparun, Moteeharee', in First annual report of the sanitary commissioner for Bengal, Calcutta, 1868, pp. 380-97, on pp. 391-2.
141. Schlich, op. cit., note 47 above.
142. Macnamara, op. cit, note 107 above, pp. 241-2.
143. B C Allen, Assam district gazetteers. Vol. IX. Naga Hills and Manipur, Calcutta, 1905, p. 37.
144. L S S O'Malley, Bengal district gazetteers. Champaran, Calcutta, Bengal Secretariat, 1907, pp. 60-1. M'Clelland, op. cit., note 81 above, pp. 43, 90, 108, had noted "some mechanical skill" among goitrous and cretinous copper miners in a Kamaon village.
145. L S S O'Malley, Bengal district gazetteers. Champaran, Calcutta, Bengal Secretariat, 1907, pp. 60-1. M'Clelland, op. cit., note 81 above, pp. 43, 90, 108, had noted "some mechanical skill" among goitrous and cretinous copper miners in a Kamaon village.
146. Annual report on European education in Bengal, for the year 1918-19, Calcutta, 1919, p. 5.
147. C Swynnerton, Folk tales from the Upper Indus, Islamabad, National Institute of Folk Heritage, reprinted 1978, originally Indian nights' entertainment; or folk tales from the Upper Indus, London, 1892, pp. 307-10.
148. C Swynnerton, Folk tales from the Upper Indus, Islamabad, National Institute of Folk Heritage, reprinted 1978, originally Indian nights' entertainment; or folk tales from the Upper Indus, London, 1892, pp. 307-10.
149. G Gorer, Himalayan village, London, Michael Joseph, 1938, pp. 173-4, 236, 307, 371-2. Goitres had been reported 80 years earlier among the Lepchas, by Joseph D Hooker, Himalayan journals, London, John Murray, 1854, p. 134.
150. G Gorer, Himalayan village, London, Michael Joseph, 1938, pp. 173-4, 236, 307, 371-2. Goitres had been reported 80 years earlier among the Lepchas, by Joseph D Hooker, Himalayan journals, London, John Murray, 1854, p. 134.
151. Gorer, op. cit, note 117 above, p. 236, also p. 173.
152. J Staley, Words for my brother, Karachi, Oxford University Press, 1982, p. 169.
153. K Choden, Folktales of Bhutan, Bangkok, White Lotus, 1993, pp. 115-19.
154. W Ainslie, Materia Indica, 2 vols, London, Longman, Rees, et al., 1826, vol. 1, p. 401. Ainslie mentioned sponge as one of many seaplant sources of iodine, vol. 1, p. 633.
155. W Ainslie, Materia Indica, 2 vols, London, Longman, Rees, et al., 1826, vol. 1, p. 401. Ainslie mentioned sponge as one of many seaplant sources of iodine, vol. 1, p. 633.
156. Traill, op. cit., note 52 above, pp. 215-16.
157. J Forbes Royle, Illustrations of the botany and other branches of the natural history of the Himalayan mountains and the flora of Cashmere, London, 1840, vol. 1, pt. II, pp. 441-2.
158. G T Vigne, Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, Iskardo, etc., 2 vols, London, Henry Colburn, 1842, vol. 1, p. 198. Surgeon General Charles A Gordon, An epitome of the reports of the medical officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service, from 1871 to 1882, London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1884, p. 232, notes chewing of the seaweed "Kwen-pu" to treat goitre in China.
159. G T Vigne, Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, Iskardo, etc., 2 vols, London, Henry Colburn, 1842, vol. 1, p. 198. Surgeon General Charles A Gordon, An epitome of the reports of the medical officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service, from 1871 to 1882, London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1884, p. 232, notes chewing of the seaweed "Kwen-pu" to treat goitre in China.
160. Royle, op. cit., note 123 above, pp. 40, 630-1.
161. J Forbes Royle, A manual of materia medica and therapeutics, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1852, p. 691. Laminaria saccharina was identified with the iodine-rich "K'un Pu" listed by K Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-Teh, History of Chinese medicine, 2nd ed., Shanghai, National Quarantine Service, 1936, pp. 119-21, among Chinese seaweeds used for goitre treatment. Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China. A history of pharmaceutics, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, p. 356, identifies "K'un-pu" as Laminaria japonica Aresch. E H Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 149, 190 and footnotes. identified a T'ang dynasty trade in "kompo" across Korea and China. Miyasita, op. cit., note 13 above, pp 20-1, noted "k'un-pu" as a goitre remedy in Chinese formularies, written around 200 CE, also in the mid-seventh century, in 1482 and in 1556. Miyasita suggests that from the mid-sixteenth century "the diagnosis of goitre and wen became confused and the prescriptions for both diseases also became obscure" (p. 21).
162. J Forbes Royle, A manual of materia medica and therapeutics, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1852, p. 691. Laminaria saccharina was identified with the iodine-rich "K'un Pu" listed by K Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-Teh, History of Chinese medicine, 2nd ed., Shanghai, National Quarantine Service, 1936, pp. 119-21, among Chinese seaweeds used for goitre treatment. Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China. A history of pharmaceutics, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, p. 356, identifies "K'un-pu" as Laminaria japonica Aresch. E H Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 149, 190 and footnotes. identified a T'ang dynasty trade in "kompo" across Korea and China. Miyasita, op. cit., note 13 above, pp 20-1, noted "k'un-pu" as a goitre remedy in Chinese formularies, written around 200 CE, also in the mid-seventh century, in 1482 and in 1556. Miyasita suggests that from the mid-sixteenth century "the diagnosis of goitre and wen became confused and the prescriptions for both diseases also became obscure" (p. 21).
163. J Forbes Royle, A manual of materia medica and therapeutics, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1852, p. 691. Laminaria saccharina was identified with the iodine-rich "K'un Pu" listed by K Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-Teh, History of Chinese medicine, 2nd ed., Shanghai, National Quarantine Service, 1936, pp. 119-21, among Chinese seaweeds used for goitre treatment. Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China. A history of pharmaceutics, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, p. 356, identifies "K'un-pu" as Laminaria japonica Aresch. E H Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 149, 190 and footnotes. identified a T'ang dynasty trade in "kompo" across Korea and China. Miyasita, op. cit., note 13 above, pp 20-1, noted "k'un-pu" as a goitre remedy in Chinese formularies, written around 200 CE, also in the mid-seventh century, in 1482 and in 1556. Miyasita suggests that from the mid-sixteenth century "the diagnosis of goitre and wen became confused and the prescriptions for both diseases also became obscure" (p. 21).
164. J Forbes Royle, A manual of materia medica and therapeutics, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1852, p. 691. Laminaria saccharina was identified with the iodine-rich "K'un Pu" listed by K Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-Teh, History of Chinese medicine, 2nd ed., Shanghai, National Quarantine Service, 1936, pp. 119-21, among Chinese seaweeds used for goitre treatment. Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China. A history of pharmaceutics, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, p. 356, identifies "K'un-pu" as Laminaria japonica Aresch. E H Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 149, 190 and footnotes. identified a T'ang dynasty trade in "kompo" across Korea and China. Miyasita, op. cit., note 13 above, pp 20-1, noted "k'un-pu" as a goitre remedy in Chinese formularies, written around 200 CE, also in the mid-seventh century, in 1482 and in 1556. Miyasita suggests that from the mid-sixteenth century "the diagnosis of goitre and wen became confused and the prescriptions for both diseases also became obscure" (p. 21).
165. J Forbes Royle, A manual of materia medica and therapeutics, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1852, p. 691. Laminaria saccharina was identified with the iodine-rich "K'un Pu" listed by K Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-Teh, History of Chinese medicine, 2nd ed., Shanghai, National Quarantine Service, 1936, pp. 119-21, among Chinese seaweeds used for goitre treatment. Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China. A history of pharmaceutics, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, p. 356, identifies "K'un-pu" as Laminaria japonica Aresch. E H Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 149, 190 and footnotes. identified a T'ang dynasty trade in "kompo" across Korea and China. Miyasita, op. cit., note 13 above, pp 20-1, noted "k'un-pu" as a goitre remedy in Chinese formularies, written around 200 CE, also in the mid-seventh century, in 1482 and in 1556. Miyasita suggests that from the mid-sixteenth century "the diagnosis of goitre and wen became confused and the prescriptions for both diseases also became obscure" (p. 21).
166. J M Honigberger, Thirty-five years in the East, London, Baillière, 1852, pp. 52-3, 297. J L Stewart, in Punjab plants, Lahore, Government Press, 1869, p. 269, quoted Honigberger, but favoured a China Seas origin for "gillar pattr", which he thought was "found in most Bazars".
167. J M Honigberger, Thirty-five years in the East, London, Baillière, 1852, pp. 52-3, 297. J L Stewart, in Punjab plants, Lahore, Government Press, 1869, p. 269, quoted Honigberger, but favoured a China Seas origin for "gillar pattr", which he thought was "found in most Bazars".
168. E J Waring, Pharmacopoeia of India, London, W H Allen, 1868, pp. 260-1. Waring cited Cope, to whom the botanist Thomson had suggested an origin at "the mouth of the Amoor River or thereabouts", i.e. the Amurdarya which flows into the Aral Sea. H Cope, 'Remarks on a sea-weed called Gillur-kaputta; with a note thereon by Dr. T. Thomson', J. agri-hort. Soc. India, 1858, 10: 216-20.
169. E J Waring, Pharmacopoeia of India, London, W H Allen, 1868, pp. 260-1. Waring cited Cope, to whom the botanist Thomson had suggested an origin at "the mouth of the Amoor River or thereabouts", i.e. the Amurdarya which flows into the Aral Sea. H Cope, 'Remarks on a sea-weed called Gillur-kaputta; with a note thereon by Dr. T. Thomson', J. agri-hort. Soc. India, 1858, 10: 216-20.
170. Jai Singh, 'Prevalence of goitre in Chiniot and in the villages about it', Indian med. Gaz., 1886, 21: 74-6 Singh was the first Indian to write specifically on goitre in the colonial medical journals; though useful comments had earlier been made by P A Minas, 'Report on the prevailing diseases in the Madhopore district', Indian med. Gaz., 1871, 6: 253-5.
171. Jai Singh, 'Prevalence of goitre in Chiniot and in the villages about it', Indian med. Gaz., 1886, 21: 74-6 Singh was the first Indian to write specifically on goitre in the colonial medical journals; though useful comments had earlier been made by P A Minas, 'Report on the prevailing diseases in the Madhopore district', Indian med. Gaz., 1871, 6: 253-5.
172. Cope, op. cit., note 128 above, p. 219.
173. K M Nadkarni, Indian materia medica, revised by A M K Nadkarni, Bombay, Sangam, 1927, reprinted 1986, vol. 1, p. 724. Nadkarni suggested, improbably, that Laminaria saccharina was "found throughout India in salt lakes and deep seas".
174. See A Neelameghan, Development of medical societies and medical periodicals in India, 1780 to 1920, Calcutta, Oxford Book & Stationery Co., 1963.
175. R Ross, 'The need for a medical library in India', Indian med. Gaz., 1898, 33: 199. The lack of a medical library contrasts with the development of natural history museums since 1802, and early provisions for botanical knowledge, both of which held stronger commercial promise. See Andrew Grout, 'Possessing the earth: geological collections, information and education in India, 1800-1850', in: Nigel Crook (ed.), The transmission of knowledge in south Asia, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 245-79; K N Matthew, 'Botany and its technologies in peninsular India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', Indian J. Hist. Sci., 1982, 17 (2): 353-64.
176. R Ross, 'The need for a medical library in India', Indian med. Gaz., 1898, 33: 199. The lack of a medical library contrasts with the development of natural history museums since 1802, and early provisions for botanical knowledge, both of which held stronger commercial promise. See Andrew Grout, 'Possessing the earth: geological collections, information and education in India, 1800-1850', in: Nigel Crook (ed.), The transmission of knowledge in south Asia, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 245-79; K N Matthew, 'Botany and its technologies in peninsular India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', Indian J. Hist. Sci., 1982, 17 (2): 353-64.
177. R Ross, 'The need for a medical library in India', Indian med. Gaz., 1898, 33: 199. The lack of a medical library contrasts with the development of natural history museums since 1802, and early provisions for botanical knowledge, both of which held stronger commercial promise. See Andrew Grout, 'Possessing the earth: geological collections, information and education in India, 1800-1850', in: Nigel Crook (ed.), The transmission of knowledge in south Asia, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 245-79; K N Matthew, 'Botany and its technologies in peninsular India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', Indian J. Hist. Sci., 1982, 17 (2): 353-64.
178. Fayrer, op. cit., note 27 above.
179. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
180. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
181. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical
182. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
183. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
184. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
185. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
186. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
187. See J W Bennett, Ceylon and its capabilities, London, Allen, 1843, p. 348. Henry Cayley, 'Notes on Ladak in 1867', Indian med. Gaz., 1868, 3: 3-5. J B Wilson, 'Some inquiries into the causes of goître and circumstances under which cretinism is developed', Med. Times Gaz., 1874, 2: 692-4. H A Chatham Gray, 'Bronchocele in Baxa, Bhootan', Lancet, 1877, i: 937-8. W H Adley, Sanitary report of the Province of Assam for the year 1876, Simla, Government Central Branch Press, 1877, pp. 50, 64. T K Hall, 'Three cases of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1879, 14: 18-19. L Cameron, 'Contribution to the medical history of goitre', ibid., 1880, 15: 175-6. Calcutta Medical Society, ibid., 1880, 15: 250-1. George M Giles, 'Notes on endemic goitre; its aetiology and treatment', Indian med. J., 1886, 5: 467, 515.
188. Calcutta Medical Society, 'The operative treatment of goitre, with cases', Indian med. Gaz., 1892, 27: 340-3, p. 340.
189. Brett, op. cit., note 82 above, pp. 118-20.
190. Greenhow, op. cit., note 96 above, p. 451.
191. Calcutta Medical Society, op. cit., note 136 above, p. 343. Goitre surgery in India was risky. Surgeon H Smith, 'The work of the Jullundur Civil Hospital in 1906', Indian med. Gaz., 1907, 42: 326-8, excised many goitres but deplored the patients' "peculiar liability to not only dying on the table, but within half an hour after leaving it from the effects of chloroform".
192. Calcutta Medical Society, op. cit., note 136 above, p. 343. Goitre surgery in India was risky. Surgeon H Smith, 'The work of the Jullundur Civil Hospital in 1906', Indian med. Gaz., 1907, 42: 326-8, excised many goitres but deplored the patients' "peculiar liability to not only dying on the table, but within half an hour after leaving it from the effects of chloroform".
193. Upendra Nath Sen, 'Goitre or bronchocele and its curative treatment', Indian med. Gaz., 1892, 27: 75.
194. E Baumann, 'Über das normale Vorkommen von Jod in Thierkörper', Hoppe-Seyler's Z. physiol. Chem., 1896, 21: 319-30.
195. Jean-Baptiste Boussingault, 'Recherches sur la cause qui produit le goitre dans les Cordillères de la Nouvelle-Grenade', Ann. Chim. Phys., 1831, 48: 41-69.
196. See, e.g., G A Chatin, 'Recherche de l'iode dans l'air, les eaux, le sol et les produits alimentaires des Alpes de la France et du Piémont', C. r. hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., (Paris), 1852, 34: 51-4.
197. Thenard, Magendie, Dumas, Gaudichard, de Beaumont, Pouillet, Regnault and Bussy, 'Rapport sur les travaux de M. Chatin', ibid., 1852, 35: 505-17, on p. 511. Chatin later explained how he overcame such problems: 'Des causes d'insuccès dans la recherche de minimes quantités d'iode', ibid., 1876, 82: 128-32.
198. Thenard, Magendie, Dumas, Gaudichard, de Beaumont, Pouillet, Regnault and Bussy, 'Rapport sur les travaux de M. Chatin', ibid., 1852, 35: 505-17, on p. 511. Chatin later explained how he overcame such problems: 'Des causes d'insuccès dans la recherche de minimes quantités d'iode', ibid., 1876, 82: 128-32.
199. D Marine, 'Endemic goitre: a problem in preventive medicine', Ann. intern. Med., 1954, 41: 875-86, p. 880 fn.
200. B Fantini, 'La révolution pastorienne et les théories sur l'étiologie du goitre et du crétinisme', Gesnerus, 1992, 49: 21-38. Editorial comment on 'The aetiology of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1900, 35: 107-8, noted Baumann's work as possible evidence that iodine caused goitre, but thought this was contradicted by the existence of "valleys where the water is rich in iodine, yet [sic] goitre does not occur" (p. 107).
201. B Fantini, 'La révolution pastorienne et les théories sur l'étiologie du goitre et du crétinisme', Gesnerus, 1992, 49: 21-38. Editorial comment on 'The aetiology of goitre', Indian med. Gaz., 1900, 35: 107-8, noted Baumann's work as possible evidence that iodine caused goitre, but thought this was contradicted by the existence of "valleys where the water is rich in iodine, yet [sic] goitre does not occur" (p. 107).
202. Merke, op. cit., note 28 above.
203. C R Harington, The thyroid gland, London, Oxford University Press, 1933, pp. 196-218.
204. See, e.g., I Greenwald, 'The early history of goiter in the Americas, in New Zealand, and in England', Bull. Hist. Med., 1945, 17: 229-68.
205. Idem, 'Some notes on the history of goitre in Ceylon', Ceylon med. J., 1953, 2: 140-1. Considering Greenwald's vigorous marshalling of other evidence, it is odd that he made little use of McCarrison's Asian work. Greenwald's papers are archived at the Frederick L Ehrman Medical Library, New York University School of Medicine.
206. N Chevers, 'Medico-topographical health histories for districts and towns', Trans. Epidemiol. Soc. Lond., 1883, 3: 1-13, p. 3.
207. Endemic goitre. Select bibliography on world distribution, 2nd ed., London, Chilean Iodine Educational Bureau, 1960. See also F C Kelly and W W Sneddon, 'Prevalence and geographical distribution of endemic goiter', in Endemic goiter, Geneva, World Health Organisation, 1960, pp. 27-233. A useful earlier list is given by August Hirsch, Handbook of geographical and historical pathology, 3 vols, transl, by C Creighton, London, New Sydenham Society, 1883-86, vol. 2, pp. 145-7.
208. Endemic goitre. Select bibliography on world distribution, 2nd ed., London, Chilean Iodine Educational Bureau, 1960. See also F C Kelly and W W Sneddon, 'Prevalence and geographical distribution of endemic goiter', in Endemic goiter, Geneva, World Health Organisation, 1960, pp. 27-233. A useful earlier list is given by August Hirsch, Handbook of geographical and historical pathology, 3 vols, transl, by C Creighton, London, New Sydenham Society, 1883-86, vol. 2, pp. 145-7.
209. Endemic goitre. Select bibliography on world distribution, 2nd ed., London, Chilean Iodine Educational Bureau, 1960. See also F C Kelly and W W Sneddon, 'Prevalence and geographical distribution of endemic goiter', in Endemic goiter, Geneva, World Health Organisation, 1960, pp. 27-233. A useful earlier list is given by August Hirsch, Handbook of geographical and historical pathology, 3 vols, transl, by C Creighton, London, New Sydenham Society, 1883-86, vol. 2, pp. 145-7.
210. R McCarrison, 'The distribution of goitre in India', Indian J. med. Res., 1915, 2: 778-90, on p. 778 mentioned the collation of many reports, but cited (p.782) only Macnamara, 1880, note 107 above. The risk of useful information disappearing surfaced in McCarrison's own experience. In addition to goitre and cretinism, he made notes on lathyrism in Gilgit, which he rediscovered only nineteen years later: idem, 'A note on lathyrism in the Gilgit Agency', ibid., 1926, 14: 379-81.
211. R McCarrison, 'The distribution of goitre in India', Indian J. med. Res., 1915, 2: 778-90, on p. 778 mentioned the collation of many reports, but cited (p.782) only Macnamara, 1880, note 107 above. The risk of useful information disappearing surfaced in McCarrison's own experience. In addition to goitre and cretinism, he made notes on lathyrism in Gilgit, which he rediscovered only nineteen years later: idem, 'A note on lathyrism in the Gilgit Agency', ibid., 1926, 14: 379-81.
212. See, e.g., R McCarrison, C Newcomb, B Viswanath and R V Norris, 'The relation of endemic goitre to the iodine-content of soil and drinking water', Indian J. med. Res., 1927, 15: 207-46; M Patnaik, 'The iodine-content of Indian food-stuffs', ibid., 1934, 22: 249-62.
213. See, e.g., R McCarrison, C Newcomb, B Viswanath and R V Norris, 'The relation of endemic goitre to the iodine-content of soil and drinking water', Indian J. med. Res., 1927, 15: 207-46; M Patnaik, 'The iodine-content of Indian food-stuffs', ibid., 1934, 22: 249-62.
214. R McCarrison, 'An enquiry into the causation of goitre at the Lawrence Military Asylum, Sanawar', Indian J. med. Res., 1914, 1: 536-88, pp. 547-8.
215. Minas, op. cit., note 129 above, pp. 253-4, cited as definition "diminutive stature, flattened and large head, with flat nose, thick lips, short and curved legs; either deaf, dumb, or blind, vacant expression of the countenance, and void of intelligence".
216. M A Greer, 'Historical role of endemic goiter in elucidating the importance of iodine nutrition', Endocrinol. Exp., 1986, 20: 9-16, pp. 10, 12. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, gave the alternatives "bronchocele or goitre" in 1833. Ayurvedic writers have kept "bronchocele" alive to the present (see, e.g., Nadkarni, op. cit., note 131 above, vol. 1, p. 724; Sen Gupta, op. cit., note 18 above, vol. 2, pp. 536-9).
217. M A Greer, 'Historical role of endemic goiter in elucidating the importance of iodine nutrition', Endocrinol. Exp., 1986, 20: 9-16, pp. 10, 12. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, gave the alternatives "bronchocele or goitre" in 1833. Ayurvedic writers have kept "bronchocele" alive to the present (see, e.g., Nadkarni, op. cit., note 131 above, vol. 1, p. 724; Sen Gupta, op. cit., note 18 above, vol. 2, pp. 536-9).
218. M A Greer, 'Historical role of endemic goiter in elucidating the importance of iodine nutrition', Endocrinol. Exp., 1986, 20: 9-16, pp. 10, 12. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, gave the alternatives "bronchocele or goitre" in 1833. Ayurvedic writers have kept "bronchocele" alive to the present (see, e.g., Nadkarni, op. cit., note 131 above, vol. 1, p. 724; Sen Gupta, op. cit., note 18 above, vol. 2, pp. 536-9).
219. M A Greer, 'Historical role of endemic goiter in elucidating the importance of iodine nutrition', Endocrinol. Exp., 1986, 20: 9-16, pp. 10, 12. Bramley, op. cit., note 3 above, gave the alternatives "bronchocele or goitre" in 1833. Ayurvedic writers have kept "bronchocele" alive to the present (see, e.g., Nadkarni, op. cit., note 131 above, vol. 1, p. 724; Sen Gupta, op. cit., note 18 above, vol. 2, pp. 536-9).
220. Clark T Sawin, 'Goiter', in K F Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge world history of human disease, Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 750-6. Sawin notes the ongoing scientific task of "teasing out several probable factors in addition to iodine deficiency that can produce endemic goitre" (p. 754), as well as the geopolitical challenge of prophylaxis.
221. John C Hume, 'Rival traditions: western medicine and yūnān-i tibb in the Punjab, 1849-1889', Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51: 214-31.
222. Report on sanitary measures in India in 1899-1900, vol. 33, Command paper 844, London, HMSO, 1901, p. 27.
223. Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994, for example, notes the "varied and often conflicting viewpoints of colonial administrators and medical officers; and the importance of practical constraints, such as local revenues" (p. 2).
224. See, e.g., General Sir Neville Chamberlain, letter to Dr David Boyes Smith, quoted in the editorial, 'The political value of the Indian Medical Service', Indian med. Gaz., 1887, 22: 333-4. Major Holmes, in Mouat, note 92 above, p. 438, writing while "patients are pouring into the compound", argued for an extension of medical aid on humanitarian grounds; then "setting humanity aside", noted that it would pay the Government to get these people cured.
225. See, e.g., General Sir Neville Chamberlain, letter to Dr David Boyes Smith, quoted in the editorial, 'The political value of the Indian Medical Service', Indian med. Gaz., 1887, 22: 333-4. Major Holmes, in Mouat, note 92 above, p. 438, writing while "patients are pouring into the compound", argued for an extension of medical aid on humanitarian grounds; then "setting humanity aside", noted that it would pay the Government to get these people cured.
226. Ikramul Haq, 'Goitre menace. Simple remedy eludes authorities', Pakistan Times, 8 April 1985.
227. D Marine and O P Kimball, 'The prevention of simple goiter in man', J. Lab. clin. Med., 1917, 3: 40-8. O P Kimball and D Marine, 'The prevention of simple goiter in man. Second paper,' Arch. intern. Med., 1918, 22: 41-4, p. 41.
228. D Marine and O P Kimball, 'The prevention of simple goiter in man', J. Lab. clin. Med., 1917, 3: 40-8. O P Kimball and D Marine, 'The prevention of simple goiter in man. Second paper,' Arch. intern. Med., 1918, 22: 41-4, p. 41.
229. Marine, op. cit., note 145 above, p. 884.
230. J R D Webb, "The medical inspection of school children at Simla", in Some experiments in Indian education, Calcutta, Bureau of Education, India, 1927, pp. 77-84. McCarrison, op. cit., note 155 above. Also R McCarrison, 'An experiment in goitre prevention', Br. med. J., 1927, i: 94-5. Success at Sanawar arose from a new bacteriologically pure water supply, even though this contained less iodine than the previous impure supply.
231. J R D Webb, "The medical inspection of school children at Simla', in Some experiments in Indian education, Calcutta, Bureau of Education, India, 1927, pp. 77-84. McCarrison, op. cit., note 155 above. Also R McCarrison, 'An experiment in goitre prevention', Br. med. J., 1927, i: 94-5. Success at Sanawar arose from a new bacteriologically pure water supply, even though this contained less iodine than the previous impure supply.
232. J R D Webb, "The medical inspection of school children at Simla', in Some experiments in Indian education, Calcutta, Bureau of Education, India, 1927, pp. 77-84. McCarrison, op. cit., note 155 above. Also R McCarrison, 'An experiment in goitre prevention', Br. med. J., 1927, i: 94-5. Success at Sanawar arose from a new bacteriologically pure water supply, even though this contained less iodine than the previous impure supply.
233. Schlich, op. cit., note 47 above, pp. 440-1.
234. Marine, op. cit., note 145 above, p. 884. For comparison, the international tensions between technical and structural solutions in the deficiency disease of beriberi (another field where McCarrison was influential) are analysed by Anne Hardy, 'Beriberi, vitamin B1 and world food policy', Med. Hist., 1995, 39: 61-77. Technical quick fixes retain some appeal, but the broader, social and structural solutions have slowly become the official wisdom.
235. Marine, op. cit., note 145 above, p. 884. For comparison, the international tensions between technical and structural solutions in the deficiency disease of beriberi (another field where McCarrison was influential) are analysed by Anne Hardy, 'Beriberi, vitamin B1 and world food policy', Med. Hist., 1995, 39: 61-77. Technical quick fixes retain some appeal, but the broader, social and structural solutions have slowly become the official wisdom.
236. S Manuel, Note No. 408, Punjab Notes & Queries, vol. 2, Jan. 1885, No. 16. See also Notes Nos 226 and 301, ibid., vol. 1, Dec. 1883, No. 3.
237. S Manuel, Note No. 408, Punjab Notes & Queries, vol. 2, Jan. 1885, No. 16. See also Notes Nos 226 and 301, ibid., vol. 1, Dec. 1883, No. 3.
238. The national goitre, op. cit., note 7 above, p. 46.
239. Boussingault, op. cit., note 142 above, p. 55, learnt that among the people of Antioquia efforts were sometimes made to render their naturally iodized salt more palatable by "purifying" it; but this soon resulted in goitres appearing.
240. David Scott, an overweight man with heart problems, put himself in a harness by which a pair of mountaineers could help haul his bulk up the steep tracks between villages: White, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 33. O'Malley, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 192-3, remarked that horse riding was still, in the 1930s, a compulsory subject which must be passed by probationers before entry to the Indian Civil Service.
241. David Scott, an overweight man with heart problems, put himself in a harness by which a pair of mountaineers could help haul his bulk up the steep tracks between villages: White, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 33. O'Malley, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 192-3, remarked that horse riding was still, in the 1930s, a compulsory subject which must be passed by probationers before entry to the Indian Civil Service.
242. R McCarrison, 'The distribution of goitre in India', Indian J. med. Res., 1915, 2: 778-90, pp. 788-9.
243. S R Mazta and S K Ahelluwalia, 'Literacy campaign and health education go hand in hand', Wld Hlth Forum, 1995, 16: 184-5. See also Dorothy S Mull, Jon W Anderson and J Dennis Mull, 'Cow dung rock salt, and medical innovation in the Hindu Rush of Pakistan'. Soc. Sci. Med., 1990, 30: 675-91, who emphasize the need for a "trusted messenger" (pp. 688-9).
244. S R Mazta and S K Ahelluwalia, 'Literacy campaign and health education go hand in hand', Wld Hlth Forum, 1995, 16: 184-5. See also Dorothy S Mull, Jon W Anderson and J Dennis Mull, 'Cow dung rock salt, and medical innovation in the Hindu Rush of Pakistan'. Soc. Sci. Med., 1990, 30: 675-91, who emphasize the need for a "trusted messenger" (pp. 688-9).
245. Rafiq A Khan and Ali Jumshyd, 'Goitre in Karachi studied with radioactive iodine', J. Pakistan med. Ass., 1964, 14 (1): 3-8.
246. Sirajul Haq Mahmud, A H Maan and Habib Ullah, Goitre in Pakistan, Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, 1978, p. 16.
247. Situation analysis of children and women in Pakistan, Islamabad, UNICEF and Government of Pakistan, 1992, p. 69.
248. Faizullah Kakar and A Verster, 'Iodine deficiency in Afghanistan', Wld Hlth Forum, 1996, 17: 209.
249. India's Goitre Control Programme, for example, was characterized as "always a half-hearted, weak, highly fragmented and compartmentalized operation with no unified command", in: The national goitre, note 7 above, pp. 10-11.
250. C H Thilly and Basil S Hetzel, 'An assessment of prophylactic programs: social, political, cultural and economic issues', in John B Stanbury and Basil S Hetzel (eds), Endemic goiter and endemic cretinism, New York, Wiley, 1980, pp. 475-90, on p. 484.
251. N Kochupillai, V Ramalingaswami and J B Stanbury, 'Southeast Asia', ibid., pp. 101-21, on pp. 106, 111-12; also Stewart, note 74 above, p. 1509.
252. N Kochupillai, V Ramalingaswami and J B Stanbury, 'Southeast Asia', ibid., pp. 101-21, on pp. 106, 111-12; also Stewart, note 74 above, p. 1509.
253. With no such planning, dried seaweed travelled long, difficult routes, whether from coastal China to remote parts of nineteenth-century Ladakh or from the Aral or Caspian Seas to the Punjab and Sind. Presumably there was strong market motivation. The suggestion that "gillur-ke-putha" was a "favorite remedy" for syphilitic eruptions may have generated demands more urgent than those of goitre (James A Murray, The plants and drugs of Sind, London, Richardson, 1881, p. 3). Oddly, however, very little traffic in the seaweed was reported at Amritsar by Cope, op. cit., note 128 above, p. 218.
254. With no such planning, dried seaweed travelled long, difficult routes, whether from coastal China to remote parts of nineteenth-century Ladakh or from the Aral or Caspian Seas to the Punjab and Sind. Presumably there was strong market motivation. The suggestion that "gillur-ke-putha" was a "favorite remedy" for syphilitic eruptions may have generated demands more urgent than those of goitre (James A Murray, The plants and drugs of Sind, London, Richardson, 1881, p. 3). Oddly, however, very little traffic in the seaweed was reported at Amritsar by Cope, op. cit., note 128 above, p. 218.
255. Hans Bürgi, Zeno Supersaxo and Beat Selz. 'Iodine deficiency diseases in Switzerland one hundred years after Theodor Kocher's survey', Acta endocr., Copenh., 1990, 123: 577-90, p. 587. See also B S Hetzel, 'Elimination of mental defect due to iodine deficiency by the year 2000', Int. J. Disabil., Dev. Educ., 1993, 40: 83-93.
256. Hans Bürgi, Zeno Supersaxo and Beat Selz. 'Iodine deficiency diseases in Switzerland one hundred years after Theodor Kocher's survey', Acta endocr., Copenh., 1990, 123: 577-90, p. 587. See also B S Hetzel, 'Elimination of mental defect due to iodine deficiency by the year 2000', Int. J. Disabil., Dev. Educ., 1993, 40: 83-93.
257. National goitre, op. cit, note 7 above, pp. 37-8. An editorial in Daily Star of Bangladesh, 26 Jan. 1996, noted that "A kilogram of non-iodised salt sells at Tk eight as against Tk 12 for the same amount of iodide salt".