Assessing designs for school effectiveness research and school improvement in developing countries

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 178-203

  Riddell, Abby Rubin ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031535074     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447429     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. A. R. Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness in Third World Countries," Comparative Education Review 33, no. 4 (November 1989): 481-97.
2. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
3. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
4. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
5. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
6. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
7. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
8. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
9. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
10. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
11. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
12. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
13. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
14. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
15. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
16. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational
17. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
18. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
19. S. Bashir, "Public vs. Private in Primary Education: Comparisons of School Effectiveness in Tamil Nadu" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, March 1994); Egypt Ministry of Education, Education Planning and Information Division, Research and Analysis Directorate, "General Report on National Survey of Teaching Practices and School Effectiveness" (Egypt Ministry of Education, Cairo, 1993); B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 347-76; M. E. Lockheed and B. Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 242 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1989); M. E. Lockheed and Q. Zhao, "The Empty Opportunity: Local Control of Secondary Schools and Student Achievement in the Philippines," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 1 (1993): 45-63; A. Loera and N. F. McGinn, "La repitencia de grado en la escuela primaria Colombiana: Resultados de una exploración sobre los factores asociados a la repitencia y las políticas de promoción," Education Development discussion paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, Florida State University, and Harvard University, How Much Do Namibia's Children Learn in School? Findings from the 1992 National Learner Baseline Assessment (Windhoek: Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994); L. M. Nyagura and A. R. Riddell, "Primary School Achievement in English and Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Multi-level Analysis," Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 1208 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1993); S. W. Raudenbush, S. Kidchanapanish, and S. J. Kang, "The Effects of Preprimary Access and Quality on Educational Achievement in Thailand," Comparative Education Review 35, no. 2 (1991): 255-73; S. W. Raudenbush and C. Bhumirat, "The Distribution of Resources for Primary Education and Its Consequences for Educational Achievement in Thailand," International Journal of Educational Research 17, no. 2 (1992): 143-77; F. Reimers, "Influences on Student Achievement in Pakistan," and "The Role of Multigrade Education in Honduras" (papers presented at the Basic Research and Implementation in Developing Education Systems/Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems [BRIDGES/IEES] Conference on School Effectiveness, Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., September 1992); Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness," and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe: A Multilevel Analysis" (Ph.D. diss., University of London Institute of Education, 1988); A. R. Riddell and L. M. Nyagura, "What Causes Differences in Achievement in Zimbabwe's Secondary Schools?" Policy, Planning, and Research Working Papers WPS 705 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1991); A. R. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs in Developing Countries," International Journal of Educational Development 13, no. 4 (1993): 373-86, and "Toward Modelling the National Study of Instructional Quality from a Multilevel Perspective" (Report to the National Center for Educational Research and Development, Amman, 1994); S. Singh and R. R. Saxena, "Achievement Difference and School Effects," Indian Educational Review, Special Number 1995 on District Primary Education Programme (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, July 1995); D. P. Warwick and H. Jatoi, "Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan," Comparative Education Review 38, no. 3 (1994): 377-99.
20. That is, the first International Congress of School Effectiveness and Improvement held in London in January 1988 and the inauguration of the journal School Effectiveness and School Improvement in 1990.
21. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
22. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
23. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
24. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
25. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
26. For example, despite the fact that serious doubt has been cast on the supposed differentiation of Third World school effectiveness (Riddell, "An Alternative Approach"), e.g., that "school-related factors are more important than out-of-school factors in explaining differences in student achievement" ( J. P. Farrell, "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs, ed. J. P. Farrell and J. B. Oliveira [Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute, 1993], p. 29), such "gospel" continues to be pronounced, as above, most often unquestioningly; see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 122; H. Black, R. Govinda, F. Kiragu, and M. Devine, School Improvement in the Developing World: An Evaluation of the Ago Khan Foundation Programme (Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education, 1993), p. 10, citing B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92; D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, J. Bird, S. Farrell, and F. Swint, "School Effectiveness - the Need for an International Perspective," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, S. Stringfield, and C. Teddlie (Oxford: Pergamon), pp. 221-22.
27. See Fuller and Clarke; J. Jansen, "Effective Schools?" Comparative Education 31, no. 2 (1995): 181-200; and Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al., eds., for continuation, then see P. Dalin, How Schools Improve: An International Report (London: Cassell, 1994), for school improvement; and then J. Schwille, A. Beeftu, R. Navarro, R. Prouty, S. Raudenbush, W. Schmidt, M. Tsang, and C. Wheeler, "Recognizing, Fostering, and Modeling the Effectiveness of Schools as Organizations in Third World Countries" (Project BRIDGES/IEES, Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
28. See Fuller and Clarke; J. Jansen, "Effective Schools?" Comparative Education 31, no. 2 (1995): 181-200; and Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al., eds., for continuation, then see P. Dalin, How Schools Improve: An International Report (London: Cassell, 1994), for school improvement; and then J. Schwille, A. Beeftu, R. Navarro, R. Prouty, S. Raudenbush, W. Schmidt, M. Tsang, and C. Wheeler, "Recognizing, Fostering, and Modeling the Effectiveness of Schools as Organizations in Third World Countries" (Project BRIDGES/IEES, Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
29. See Fuller and Clarke; J. Jansen, "Effective Schools?" Comparative Education 31, no. 2 (1995): 181-200; and Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al., eds., for continuation, then see P. Dalin, How Schools Improve: An International Report (London: Cassell, 1994), for school improvement; and then J. Schwille, A. Beeftu, R. Navarro, R. Prouty, S. Raudenbush, W. Schmidt, M. Tsang, and C. Wheeler, "Recognizing, Fostering, and Modeling the Effectiveness of Schools as Organizations in Third World Countries" (Project BRIDGES/IEES, Cambridge, Mass., 1986).
30. I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer of this article for excellent points concerning the reorganization of my arguments.
31. Fuller and Clarke; Jansen.
32. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement."
33. Jansen.
34. Fuller and Clarke, pp. 119-20.
35. See the critique of B. Fuller, "Raising School Quality in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learning?" World Bank Discussion Paper no. 2 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1986), in Schwille et al.
36. For instance, they state that "the majority of studies reveal significant effects within primary schools" of "the influence of teachers' own social class background" (Fuller and Clarke, p. 129). While sounding extremely reasonable, the basis for such a generalization is merely a tally: that in seven out of ten studies, this variable had a significant effect. We know nothing of the size or the validity of these "significant" effects because there is no discussion of the research designs used in these studies.
37. Ibid., p. 122.
38. See Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above), for full discussion. It is ironic that this gospel is contradicted by Fuller himself in Fuller et al. (n. 2 above), p. 367, in the context of a multilevel analysis of school effectiveness carried out in Botswana, in which only 12 percent of the variance in English and 16 percent of the variance in math scores can be attributed to between-school differences.
39. Schwille et al.; Fuller, "Raising School Quality," and "What School Factors Raise Achievement" (n. 4 above).
40. Fuller and Clarke (n. 4 above), p. 125.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid., p. 132.
43. Without reanalyzing the data contained in the individual studies, such as has been done to some of the more controversial school effectiveness research in industrialized countries - see the reanalysis of James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools (New York: Basic, 1982), in Stephen Raudenbush and Anthony S. Bryk, "A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects," Sociology of Education 59 (1986): 1-17, or the reanalysis of S. N. Bennett with J. Jordan, G. Long, and B. Wade, Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (London: Open Books, 1976), in M. Aitkin, S. N. Bennett, and Jane Hesketh, "Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress: A Reanalysis," British Journal of Educational Psychology 51 (1981): 170-86 - one cannot derive valid generalizations from this body of research, despite the pressures or, indeed, the research money incentives, applied especially by donors, for many of us to do so.
44. Without reanalyzing the data contained in the individual studies, such as has been done to some of the more controversial school effectiveness research in industrialized countries - see the reanalysis of James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools (New York: Basic, 1982), in Stephen Raudenbush and Anthony S. Bryk, "A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects," Sociology of Education 59 (1986): 1-17, or the reanalysis of S. N. Bennett with J. Jordan, G. Long, and B. Wade, Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (London: Open Books, 1976), in M. Aitkin, S. N. Bennett, and Jane Hesketh, "Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress: A Reanalysis," British Journal of Educational Psychology 51 (1981): 170-86 - one cannot derive valid generalizations from this body of research, despite the pressures or, indeed, the research money incentives, applied especially by donors, for many of us to do so.
45. Without reanalyzing the data contained in the individual studies, such as has been done to some of the more controversial school effectiveness research in industrialized countries - see the reanalysis of James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools (New York: Basic, 1982), in Stephen Raudenbush and Anthony S. Bryk, "A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects," Sociology of Education 59 (1986): 1-17, or the reanalysis of S. N. Bennett with J. Jordan, G. Long, and B. Wade, Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (London: Open Books, 1976), in M. Aitkin, S. N. Bennett, and Jane Hesketh, "Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress: A Reanalysis," British Journal of Educational Psychology 51 (1981): 170-86 - one cannot derive valid generalizations from this body of research, despite the pressures or, indeed, the research money incentives, applied especially by donors, for many of us to do so.
46. Without reanalyzing the data contained in the individual studies, such as has been done to some of the more controversial school effectiveness research in industrialized countries - see the reanalysis of James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools (New York: Basic, 1982), in Stephen Raudenbush and Anthony S. Bryk, "A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects," Sociology of Education 59 (1986): 1-17, or the reanalysis of S. N. Bennett with J. Jordan, G. Long, and B. Wade, Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (London: Open Books, 1976), in M. Aitkin, S. N. Bennett, and Jane Hesketh, "Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress: A Reanalysis," British Journal of Educational Psychology 51 (1981): 170-86 - one cannot derive valid generalizations from this body of research, despite the pressures or, indeed, the research money incentives, applied especially by donors, for many of us to do so.
47. Fuller and Clarke, p. 128.
48. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement."
49. See Schwille et al. (n. 5 above).
50. Fuller and Clarke, p. 141.
51. See Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs," pp. 373-86, for a full discussion (n. 2 above).
52. Fuller and Clarke (n. 4 above), p. 135.
53. Ibid., p. 139.
54. Ibid., p. 135.
55. Ibid., p. 134.
56. To be fair, in correspondence, Fuller disputed the allegation I am making. However, it would seem that there remains a dichotomy, in Fuller and Clarke's view, between "school effectiveness" in "impoverished areas" and "school effectiveness" in more affluent areas, whether or not this is between countries.
57. Riddell, "The Evidence on Public/Private Educational Trade-offs," and Bashir (n. 2 above).
58. Jansen (n. 5 above), p. 186.
59. Ibid., p. 194.
60. Ibid., p. 195.
61. Ibid., p. 190.
62. Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above), pp. 483-84.
63. Fuller and Clarke (n. 4 above), p. 134.
64. C. Teddlie analyzes "the lack of contextually sensitive studies in school effectiveness research for most of the first 20 years of its existence [as] a testament to the power of the equity ideal that long dominated the field." He sees the shift to school improvement as being a reflection of the abandonment of the equity ideal in favor of efficiency: improving schools for all (see C. Teddlie, "The Study of School Context in School Effects Research: History, Methods, Results, and Theoretical Implications," in Advances in School Effectiveness Research and Practice, ed. Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al. (n. 4 above), pp. 87-88.
65. This is not the place for a long methodological treatise. Suffice it to say that economists who have been exposed to multilevel models see them as a minor subset of generalized least squares models that do not solve the overriding problems of selectivity bias that hinder such research. (I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for this particular point, which clarified for me why it has been so difficult to interest economists in multilevel models of such intrinsic interest to educationists: they miss their substantive importance.)
66. See K. King, Aid and Education in the Developing World: The Role of the Donor Agencies in Educational Analysis (Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1991); and P. Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).
67. See K. King, Aid and Education in the Developing World: The Role of the Donor Agencies in Educational Analysis (Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1991); and P. Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).
68. See, e.g., the useful analysis of these two "schools" in D. Reynolds, D. Hopkins, and L. Stoll, "Linking School Effectiveness Knowledge and School Improvement Practice: Towards a Synergy," School Effectiveness and School Improvement 4, no. 1 (1993): 37-58.
69. C. Teddlie and S. Stringfield, Schools Make a Difference: Lessons Learned from a 10-Year Study of School Effects (London: Teachers College Press, 1993), pp. 188-89.
70. K. N. Ross and T. N. Postlethwaite, Indicators of the Quality of Education: A Summary of a National Study of Primary Schools in Zimbabwe, Research Report no. 96 (Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning, 1992).
71. See the Southern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ): D. Kulpoo, M. Nkamba, and T. Machingaidze, "SACMEQ - an Innovative and Exciting Concept," IIEP Newsletter 13, no. 3 (July-September 1995): 4-6.
72. Ross and Postlethwaite, p. 41.
73. Data were collected on school buildings, teachers and their living conditions, and school and classroom provisions.
74. My research in Zimbabwe was similarly constrained by time. Yet is was possible to produce a multilevel school effectiveness study in significantly less time than the 40-week period specified as necessary for studies of the IIEP variety.
75. See H. Goldstein, "Better Ways to Compare Schools?" Journal of Educational Statistics 16, no. 2 (1991): 89-91, on the broad brush use of rankings, as opposed to a finer approach, given the inseparability of school effects given their relatively large standard errors.
76. Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above), and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe"; Riddell and Nyagura; and Nyagura and Riddell (all in n. 2 above).
77. Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above), and "School Effectiveness in Secondary Education in Zimbabwe"; Riddell and Nyagura; and Nyagura and Riddell (all in n. 2 above).
78. See J. D. Willms, Monitoring School Performance: A Guide for Educators (London: Falmer, 1992), chap. 4; H. Goldstein, Multilevel Statistical Models (London: Edward Arnold, 1995); and Raudenbush and Bryk (n. 19 above), among many other more recent applications of a multilevel analytic approach in the literature. See Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al., eds. (n. 4 above), for the most recent review of such research.
79. See J. D. Willms, Monitoring School Performance: A Guide for Educators (London: Falmer, 1992), chap. 4; H. Goldstein, Multilevel Statistical Models (London: Edward Arnold, 1995); and Raudenbush and Bryk (n. 19 above), among many other more recent applications of a multilevel analytic approach in the literature. See Reynolds, Creemers, Nesselrodt, et al., eds. (n. 4 above), for the most recent review of such research.
80. Judging by other reanalyses, however, it is more than likely that the effectiveness rankings both include and exclude schools that otherwise would be notable utilizing a multilevel framework. For instance, see P. Sammons, S. Thomas, P. Mortimore, C. Owen, and H. Pennell, Assessing School Effectiveness: Developing Measures to Put School Performance in Context (London: Institute of Education for the Office for Standards in Education, 1994), for a comparison of different models of school effectiveness. This study investigated the use of "nationally available data sources [in the United Kingdom] to create indicators of secondary schools' intakes to . . . enable comparisons of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) performance to be placed in better context" (p. i). "It was concluded that OLS [ordinary least squares] techniques can provide an interim method of putting secondary schools' performance in context. Nonetheless, a major limitation is the absence of confidence limits for individual schools. Using the OLS approach, it is not possible to identify for which schools actual GCSE performance differs significantly from that expected on the basis of their intake" (p. iii). "False positives and false negatives will be encountered using the less sophisticated OLS methodology and aggregated school-level information" (p. 38).
81. For instance, Jansen includes my multilevel work, legitimately, in the older tradition of school effectiveness research, bound by resource-driven modeling. Lack of donor funding, however, has meant that multilevel applications in the Third World have been extremely limited - both in number and, importantly, in design. The fact that richer, more complicated studies have not been funded should not be taken as the basis for discarding multilevel analysis. Indeed, Jansen himself ends with a plea for adequate donor finance of educational research. See King (n. 39 above) on the bias of donor-driven and supported educational research in developing countries.
82. Willms, chap. 4.
83. Ibid., p. 40.
84. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
85. Ibid., p. 146.
86. Peter Cuttance, "Evaluating the Effectiveness of Schools," in School Effectiveness: Research, Policy and Practice, ed. D. Reynolds and P. Cuttance (London: Cassell, 1992), pp. 76 ff.
87. This is the same point, essentially, as was made in the last section concerning Fuller and Clarke's suggested continuation of the policy mechanics' tradition.
88. Cuttance, p. 76.
89. Ross and Postlethwaite (n. 42 above).
90. Cuttance, p. 79.
91. Ibid., p. 82.
92. Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture et al. (n. 2 above).
93. Specifically for identifying the levels of English and mathematics.
94. Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture et al., p. 1.
95. Ibid., p. 1, no. 4.
96. Attempts to use data from the baseline assessment for planning purposes not only have been frustrated by the original research design but also have been compounded by questions on the analyses made of the existing cross-sectional data. Thus, a multilevel, variance components model is used to analyze - albeit in the absence of both pupil-level intake measures and socioeconomic background information - the proportion of the variation in English and math achievement attributable to between-school vs. between-pupil factors. It is found that, in both subjects, about two-thirds of the variation can be attributed to between-school differences, which the authors go on to state reflect "the vast inequality in family wealth and school quality across Namibia's local communities" (Namibia Ministry of Education [n. 2 above], p. 64). However, despite the extensive clustering between schools, the authors do not point out the problems of utilizing a single-level model in the remaining analyses.
97. This is an adaptation of the SACMEQ initiative to which reference has been made in n. 43 above.
98. Fuller et al. (n. 2 above). It is somewhat ironic that I should cite another article by Fuller as an exemplification of more sophisticated school effectiveness research, given the discussion above in relation to Fuller and Clarke (n. 4 above), which depicts their two "classes" of school effectiveness research. It is certainly true that Botswana stands out as having much lower between-school differentiation than most Third World countries, as can be seen in table 1. Perhaps the mineral wealth that financed the relatively equitable expansion of the Botswanan educational system has brought it into the top league meriting such research. However, following Fuller and Clarke's argument, resource-based inputs in a higher quality system should be less "effective." Yet the authors pick out class size, in-service math teacher training, and supplementary math readers for further analysis.
99. The authors explain that this is due to the "limited number of degrees of freedom" resulting from the 61 "teacher-form clusters" into which information on the 214 observed classrooms was reduced because "initial analyses showed that teacher behaviors were more strongly related to achievement when all observed teachers within a form were pooled, rather than matching pupils to their particular English or math teacher" (Fuller et al., p. 361). Yet the cost was the absence of potential association of particular pedagogical practices with student achievement in English or math.
100. It would have been preferable if the posttest score, controlling for the pretest score, had been used, rather than a gain score as the independent variable, given that the variance of the pretest score, which is of interest, is lost in the gain score.
101. The authors utilize class size for English (which does not survive a multilevel analysis and has borderline significance in the OLS equation), in-service math teacher training, and supplementary math readers - the latter two found to be significant in their final multilevel equation. They then use the coefficients found for these variables in the OLS equations, not the "final" multilevel equations, to calculate the cost of implementing a strategy that would produce a 1-year gain in learning by each of these routes. They argue that "the single-level OLS model is entirely appropriate" because the three "policies would be applied to a school form" and "no pupil-level processes or interventions are being introduced" (Fuller et al., p. 374, n. 36). The OLS estimates may well be applied uniformly, but it is their derivation, not their application, which is in question.
102. Edward Heneveld, "Planning and Monitoring the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa," Technical Note no. 14, Human Resources and Poverty Division, Technical Department, Africa Region (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1994), p. 1.
103. Ibid., p. 14.
104. Dalin (n. 5 above).
105. Ibid., p. xi.
106. Ibid., p. 181.
107. See n. 2 above.
108. Loera and McGinn; Namibia Ministry of Education and Culture et al.; and Fuller et al. (all in n. 2 above).
109. Fuller et al.; Bashir; Riddell, "Toward Modelling the National Study," and "School Effectiveness"; Lockheed and Langford; and Riddell and Nyagura (all in n. 2 above); and Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above).
110. Fuller et al.; Bashir; Riddell, "Toward Modelling the National Study," and "School Effectiveness"; Lockheed and Langford; and Riddell and Nyagura (all in n. 2 above); and Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above).
111. Fuller et al.; Bashir; Riddell, "Toward Modelling the National Study," and "School Effectiveness"; Lockheed and Langford; and Riddell and Nyagura (all in n. 2 above); and Riddell, "An Alternative Approach" (n. 1 above).
112. Fuller et al.
113. Fuller and Clarke (n. 4 above).
114. R. J. Bosker and J. Scheerens, "Issues in the Interpretation of the Results of School Effectiveness Research," International Journal of Educational Research 13 (1989): 745.
115. "This may be due to a uniform level of quality across Botswana's junior-secondary schools in terms of teacher qualifications and instructional materials," the authors hypothesize (Fuller et al., p. 367), and similarly in Kerala, which is an exception to the norms for the rest of India.
116. The 1988 study contains grade 7 examination scores for 1981, the 1991 study for 1987, and the 1993 study for 1990. This increased differentiation is no doubt due to the rapidity of the expansion of the educational system following independence in 1980, together with the reliance on the private sector to subsidize education, resulting in a diversity of resource endowments and differential access. It is also of interest that the increase in differentiation is greater for mathematics than for English, rising from 42 to 74 percent over the period, compared to a rise for English from 42 to 56 percent. Perhaps this is another way of saying that background factors equalize achievements in language more than in mathematics, where school factors are more significant.
117. See Bosker and Scheerens on stability of school effects; D. L. Nuttall, H. Goldstein, R. Prosser, and J. Rasbash, "Differential School Effectiveness," International Journal of Educational Research 13 (1989): 769-76; and D. Jesson and J. Gray, "Slants on Slopes: Using Multilevel Models to Investigate Differential School Effectiveness and Its Impact on Pupils' Examination Results," School Effectiveness and School Improvement 2, no. 3 (1991): 230-71, for differential school effectiveness; and discussion of context specificity in Reynolds, Creemers, Bird, et al. (n. 4 above).
118. See Bosker and Scheerens on stability of school effects; D. L. Nuttall, H. Goldstein, R. Prosser, and J. Rasbash, "Differential School Effectiveness," International Journal of Educational Research 13 (1989): 769-76; and D. Jesson and J. Gray, "Slants on Slopes: Using Multilevel Models to Investigate Differential School Effectiveness and Its Impact on Pupils' Examination Results," School Effectiveness and School Improvement 2, no. 3 (1991): 230-71, for differential school effectiveness; and discussion of context specificity in Reynolds, Creemers, Bird, et al. (n. 4 above).
119. See W. K. Cummings and A. R. Riddell, eds., "Alternative Policies for the Finance, Control, and Delivery of Basic Education," International Journal of Educational Research 21, no. 8 (1994), for a comparative discussion of different aspects of decentralization.
120. Ross and Postlethwaite (n. 42 above).
121. One also needs to be aware of unintended effects of the use of indicators. For instance, the raw, unadjusted league tables publicized in Great Britain have resulted in some schools not entering weaker students for examinations that they might fail, and thus bringing down the school's "pass rate" and their position in the ranking.
122. Of course, the situation is further exacerbated if unreliable rankings are then used as the basis for resource allocation decisions.
123. Ross and Postlethwaite, p. 45; Namibia Ministry of Education et al. (n. 2 above), p. 72.
124. On p. 75, the authors of the Namibian study point out the difficulties of making valid inferences on the basis of such a small longitudinal sample (20 schools), but the two avenues they pursue for overcoming the limitations of their research design are not tenable. On the one hand, they discuss the possibility of "equating" the grade 4 and grade 7 tests as a means of expanding the number of classrooms in the longitudinal study from 40 to 80. On the other hand, they discuss returning to the original 136 schools and assessing learners once more in grades 4 and 7. Although they would acquire a school-level measure at a further point in time, unless they followed these particular students (as, in the ideal world, they should have done with the first cohorts, had the uses of the baseline assessment for planning purposes been embraced at the start), they still will not derive reliable measures of school effectiveness, even if - all things being equal - they could perceive a "trend."
125. Heneveld (n. 72 above); Dalin (n. 5 above).
126. Heneveld and Dalin both build in flexibility for the local determination of appropriate indicators.
127. For example, international school effectiveness and improvement research being proposed under the European Union's framework on targeted socioeconomic research.
128. Although the school effectiveness and improvement research that forms a part of the District Level Primary Education Programme in India is an exception.
129. Heneveld, p. 12.
130. H. Goldstein and S. Thomas, "Using Examination Results as Indicators of School and College Performance," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, ser A, 159, pt. 1 (1996): 149-63, discuss the use of examination results for monitoring education and the identification of outliers as a "screening" device. Sally Thomas and Peter Mortimore, "Report on Value-Added Analysis of 1993 GCSE Examination Results in Lancashire" (University of London, Institute of Education, Curriculum Studies Department, London, 1994) demonstrate the use of particular residuals rankings, pointing out that "without any information on practice within the schools the analysis cannot be taken forward but for those involved with the schools, this is the start rather than the end of the project" (p. 11). Parts of this study are reported in S. Thomas and P. Mortimore, "Comparison of Value-Added Models for Secondary-School Effectiveness," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 1 (1996).
131. H. Goldstein and S. Thomas, "Using Examination Results as Indicators of School and College Performance," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, ser A, 159, pt. 1 (1996): 149-63, discuss the use of examination results for monitoring education and the identification of outliers as a "screening" device. Sally Thomas and Peter Mortimore, "Report on Value-Added Analysis of 1993 GCSE Examination Results in Lancashire" (University of London, Institute of Education, Curriculum Studies Department, London, 1994) demonstrate the use of particular residuals rankings, pointing out that "without any information on practice within the schools the analysis cannot be taken forward but for those involved with the schools, this is the start rather than the end of the project" (p. 11). Parts of this study are reported in S. Thomas and P. Mortimore, "Comparison of Value-Added Models for Secondary-School Effectiveness," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 1 (1996).
132. H. Goldstein and S. Thomas, "Using Examination Results as Indicators of School and College Performance," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, ser A, 159, pt. 1 (1996): 149-63, discuss the use of examination results for monitoring education and the identification of outliers as a "screening" device. Sally Thomas and Peter Mortimore, "Report on Value-Added Analysis of 1993 GCSE Examination Results in Lancashire" (University of London, Institute of Education, Curriculum Studies Department, London, 1994) demonstrate the use of particular residuals rankings, pointing out that "without any information on practice within the schools the analysis cannot be taken forward but for those involved with the schools, this is the start rather than the end of the project" (p. 11). Parts of this study are reported in S. Thomas and P. Mortimore, "Comparison of Value-Added Models for Secondary-School Effectiveness," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 1 (1996).