The future of peace support operations: Strategic peacekeeping and success

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 327-348

  Dandeker, Christopher ^b   Gow, James ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0031530281     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327x9702300302     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
2. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
3. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
4. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
5. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
6. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
7. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
8. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
9. Examples of contributions to that debate include: S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," in Espen Bank Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe 43; J.D.D. Smith, "Canada in Croatia: Peacekeeping and UN Reform - The Review From the Ground," Strategic and Combat Studies Institute (SCSI), The Occasional, Number 15, The Army Staff College Camberley, England, 1995. On traditional and second generation peacekeeping see Mats Berdal "Whither UN peacekeeping," Adelphi Paper 281 1993; John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Peacekeeping," Washington Quarterly (Summer 1992); Charles Dobbie, "A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping." Forsvarsstudier, 4/94, Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping, (London:Macmillan, 1994); S. Ratner, New Peacekeeping (London:Macmillan, 1995). For the broader strategic and sociological background to the newer forms of peacekeeping , see J. Burk, ed. The Military in New Times: Adjusting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World (Boulder, Co: Westview Press, 1994). Also see John Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24. The phrase "muscular peacekeeping" was, we believe, coined by Professor Adam Roberts (personal conversation).
10. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 43.
11. See Edward C. Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Post-Cold War Era: Challenges for the United Nations and its Member States," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74; for an invaluable review of UN peacekeeping see A.B. Fetherston Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping (London: Macmillan, 1994).
12. See Edward C. Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Post-Cold War Era: Challenges for the United Nations and its Member States," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74; for an invaluable review of UN peacekeeping see A.B. Fetherston Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping (London: Macmillan, 1994).
13. See the discussion of this theme in "The United Nations at Fifty: Its Role in Global Security, Ditchley Conference Report, No.D94/15, Ditchley Park, Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom.
14. As Shashi Tharoor has acutely observed, and pace Edward C Luck, "(i)t has been suggested by some that . . . conflict-mitigation tasks involving the use of force are simply not peacekeeping and do not need to be reconciled with it. The problem is however, that the Security Council has given such tasks to peacekeepers, as part of an operation in which they have also been given tasks that require them to cooperate closely with all parties. To suggest that peacekeeping rules need not apply to peacekeeping tasks is somewhat sophistical if those tasks are allocated to peacekeepers in a peacekeeping operation whose very viability could be undermined by pursuit of peace enforcement methods." Shashi Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 49 (Emphasis in original).
15. In C. Dandeker, New Times for the Military, 643-644.
16. We are indebted to discussions with James Burk for this point. For related arguments in connection with UN operations in Somalia, see W. Clarke and J. Herbst, "Somalia and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention," Foreign Affairs (March/April 1996), 70-85.
17. See C. Dandeker, "Review Essay: Public Opinion, The Media and the Gulf War Armed Forces & Society 22,2 (Winter 1995/6):297-302. As we mentioned earlier, however, the fact that some members of the political elite are concerned that the public is fickle does have an impact on their own behavior, e.g., in their sensitivity to the issue of casualties. This became apparent in interviews with government officials in connection with the operations of UNPROFOR in Bosnia.
18. On this theme see J. Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge University Press 1990).
19. For an argument that it would (not least because the prospects for building western-style civic nation-states are so limited) see T. Barber, "Learning the Bitter Lessons of Bosnia" The Independent, London, 21 March 1996, 17. Even assuming that the creation of ethnic states might work in the medium to long term, without a strategic peacekeeping operation in the shorter term, European Union countries like Germany would face an influx of refugees fleeing the conflict, leading to either a forceful border control operation (raising unpleasant images and memories of the Second World War) or a political controversy on the already sensitive issue of immigration. Even a best-case scenario of ethnic states would leave a disenchanted, even embittered, Muslim enclave consequent upon an ethnic partition of Bosnia and Hercegovina, with serious implications for the peace and stability of the European Union.
20. Such a view also underplays the extent to which the European Union can use economic and other mechanisms to persuade potentially ethnic states that their future prosperity will be damaged by such a strategy. That said, the current prospects for the survival of Bosnia as an integrated multiethnic political community do not appear strong, and, we suggest, less strong than would have been the case with a more coherent application of the strategic peacekeeping concept. Some critics have argued that the implementation force (IFOR) in Bosnia did not adopt a robust approach to the use of force, continuing a key mistake of UNPROFOR. See, for example, the leader in the London Times, "Mission Possible. The Peace Effort in Bosnia Must be Given Every Chance." The Times, London, 3 April 1996, 17.
21. On this see R. Hibbert, "The War in Bosnia: Can the Balkans Be Saved from Balkanisation?" The World Today 51 (August/September 1995), V Nos. 8-9, 155-157. This idea is also developed in essays by James Gow and C. Dandeker to appear in C. Dandeker, ed., Nationalism and Violence (forthcoming).
22. On this see R. Hibbert, "The War in Bosnia: Can the Balkans Be Saved from Balkanisation?" The World Today 51 (August/September 1995), V Nos. 8-9, 155-157. This idea is also developed in essays by James Gow and C. Dandeker to appear in C. Dandeker, ed., Nationalism and Violence (forthcoming).
23. See A. Le Roy Bennett, International Organizations: Principles and Issues, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1992), 96-162. A. James, The Politics of Peacekeeping (London: 1991), provides an analysis of traditional peacekeeping.
24. See A. Le Roy Bennett, International Organizations: Principles and Issues, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1992), 96-162. A. James, The Politics of Peacekeeping (London: 1991), provides an analysis of traditional peacekeeping.
25. These points are discussed usefully in J. Hillen III, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," Oxford International Review VI (Spring 1995), 18-24, 19.
26. Hillen's work cited earlier provides a forceful statement against the line of argument pursued in this article. We, in turn, consider the traditionalist account overly restrictive.
27. Espen Earth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 7. As John Hillen has argued, "UN Security Council recommendations under Chapter Six during the Cold War were not enforceable, while full-scale military intervention under Chapter Seven could never be agreed upon by the superpowers." See John Hillen III, UN "Collective Security Chapter Six and a Half," Parameters, U.S. Army War College Quarterly XXIV, No. 1 (Spring 1994), 27-38; 28.
28. Espen Earth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 7. As John Hillen has argued, "UN Security Council recommendations under Chapter Six during the Cold War were not enforceable, while full-scale military intervention under Chapter Seven could never be agreed upon by the superpowers." See John Hillen III, UN "Collective Security Chapter Six and a Half," Parameters, U.S. Army War College Quarterly XXIV, No. 1 (Spring 1994), 27-38; 28.
29. Hillen, UN Collective Security, 28.
30. As will be argued later, confusion over the meaning of the concepts of impartiality and neutrality has dogged recent operations of UNPROFOR and clarification of the issues involved is essential in order to produce a more workable concept of strategic peacekeeping for the future.
31. S Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," 45.
32. But, as John Hillen has noted, traditional peacekeeping is not risk free; significant casualties can be incurred; see "The United Nations and the Use of Force," 1995, 18-24.
33. J. Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping," 75.
34. Edward C Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Cold War Era," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74, 60. One should be careful about adopting too chronological a view of second generation peacekeeping. Thus Hillen makes the observation that "The 'second generation' of peacekeeping missions all occurred after the Cold War, although they have a convincing historical antecedent in the Congo Operation of 1960-4." Hillen, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," 1995, 20. For a similar point see also S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 1995. It should also be emphasized that it is too simplistic to construe the post-Cold War era in terms, of a shift from traditional to second-generation peacekeeping. Apart from the fact that ' some evidence of the latter could be found during the Cold War, today one can observe both kinds. For example, as Tharoor has noted in connection with events in Europe, traditional forms of peacekeeping have occurred with UNPROFOR in Croatia, Georgia, and Cyprus, and preventive deployment in Macedonia; the observation of non-UN forms of peacekeeping in Georgia; the provision of humanitarian aid in Bosnia and Hercegovina; and, finally, the attempt to mitigate the conflict in Bosnia and Hercegovina by UNPROFOR - what is termed here as strategic peacekeeping. See S. Tharoor, "The Role of United Nations Peacekeeping," 44.
35. Edward C Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Cold War Era," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74, 60. One should be careful about adopting too chronological a view of second generation peacekeeping. Thus Hillen makes the observation that "The 'second generation' of peacekeeping missions all occurred after the Cold War, although they have a convincing historical antecedent in the Congo Operation of 1960-4." Hillen, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," 1995, 20. For a similar point see also S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 1995. It should also be emphasized that it is too simplistic to construe the post-Cold War era in terms, of a shift from traditional to second-generation peacekeeping. Apart from the fact that ' some evidence of the latter could be found during the Cold War, today one can observe both kinds. For example, as Tharoor has noted in connection with events in Europe, traditional forms of peacekeeping have occurred with UNPROFOR in Croatia, Georgia, and Cyprus, and preventive deployment in Macedonia; the observation of non-UN forms of peacekeeping in Georgia; the provision of humanitarian aid in Bosnia and Hercegovina; and, finally, the attempt to mitigate the conflict in Bosnia and Hercegovina by UNPROFOR - what is termed here as strategic peacekeeping. See S. Tharoor, "The Role of United Nations Peacekeeping," 44.
36. Edward C Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Cold War Era," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74, 60. One should be careful about adopting too chronological a view of second generation peacekeeping. Thus Hillen makes the observation that "The 'second generation' of peacekeeping missions all occurred after the Cold War, although they have a convincing historical antecedent in the Congo Operation of 1960-4." Hillen, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," 1995, 20. For a similar point see also S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 1995. It should also be emphasized that it is too simplistic to construe the post-Cold War era in terms, of a shift from traditional to second-generation peacekeeping. Apart from the fact that ' some evidence of the latter could be found during the Cold War, today one can observe both kinds. For example, as Tharoor has noted in connection with events in Europe, traditional forms of peacekeeping have occurred with UNPROFOR in Croatia, Georgia, and Cyprus, and preventive deployment in Macedonia; the observation of non-UN forms of peacekeeping in Georgia; the provision of humanitarian aid in Bosnia and Hercegovina; and, finally, the attempt to mitigate the conflict in Bosnia and Hercegovina by UNPROFOR - what is termed here as strategic peacekeeping. See S. Tharoor, "The Role of United Nations Peacekeeping," 44.
37. Edward C Luck, "Keeping the Peace in the Cold War Era," in Espen Barth Eide, Peacekeeping in Europe, 59-74, 60. One should be careful about adopting too chronological a view of second generation peacekeeping. Thus Hillen makes the observation that "The 'second generation' of peacekeeping missions all occurred after the Cold War, although they have a convincing historical antecedent in the Congo Operation of 1960-4." Hillen, "The United Nations and the Use of Force," 1995, 20. For a similar point see also S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 1995. It should also be emphasized that it is too simplistic to construe the post-Cold War era in terms, of a shift from traditional to second-generation peacekeeping. Apart from the fact that ' some evidence of the latter could be found during the Cold War, today one can observe both kinds. For example, as Tharoor has noted in connection with events in Europe, traditional forms of peacekeeping have occurred with UNPROFOR in Croatia, Georgia, and Cyprus, and preventive deployment in Macedonia; the observation of non-UN forms of peacekeeping in Georgia; the provision of humanitarian aid in Bosnia and Hercegovina; and, finally, the attempt to mitigate the conflict in Bosnia and Hercegovina by UNPROFOR - what is termed here as strategic peacekeeping. See S. Tharoor, "The Role of United Nations Peacekeeping," 44.
38. The concept of "strategic peacekeeping" was originally coined by James Gow in his work on the former Yugoslavia as well as collaborative efforts with the present author. See J. Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping: UNPROFOR and International Diplomatic Assertion," in Espen Barth Eide, ed., Peacekeeping in Europe, 75-94; J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations: The Problem of Legitimation," The World Today 51 (August/September 1995), Nos. 8-9, 171-174. The concept of "conflict mitigation" is used by Shashi Tharoor; see his "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," 1995, 43-57, 44.
39. The concept of "strategic peacekeeping" was originally coined by James Gow in his work on the former Yugoslavia as well as collaborative efforts with the present author. See J. Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping: UNPROFOR and International Diplomatic Assertion," in Espen Barth Eide, ed., Peacekeeping in Europe, 75-94; J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations: The Problem of Legitimation," The World Today 51 (August/September 1995), Nos. 8-9, 171-174. The concept of "conflict mitigation" is used by Shashi Tharoor; see his "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," 1995, 43-57, 44.
40. The concept of "strategic peacekeeping" was originally coined by James Gow in his work on the former Yugoslavia as well as collaborative efforts with the present author. See J. Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping: UNPROFOR and International Diplomatic Assertion," in Espen Barth Eide, ed., Peacekeeping in Europe, 75-94; J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations: The Problem of Legitimation," The World Today 51 (August/September 1995), Nos. 8-9, 171-174. The concept of "conflict mitigation" is used by Shashi Tharoor; see his "The Role of the United Nations in European Peacekeeping," 1995, 43-57, 44.
41. This argument draws on recent discussions with British and French officials in June 1996. We are grateful to the Centre for Defence Studies, King's College London, for facilitating these discussions, which reflect the concept of strategic peacekeeping quite closely, with one important exception: peace restoration is conceived as a subtype of peace enforcement, whereas we contend that strategic peacekeeping is best considered as the concept that delineates the middle ground operations between classic peacekeeping and peace enforcement that mixes coercive and noncoercive measures: the ground where a good deal of future peacekeeping is likely to evolve notwithstanding the objections of the "traditionalists."
42. In characterizing the middle ground between classic peacekeeping and peace enforcement, it should be noted that peace enforcement is not war; the latter state, while constrained by the laws of war is likely to be less constrained than UN enforcement operations such as Desert Storm. This point emerged in recent discussions with British army officers.
43. See James Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping," 79; and Shashi Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 45-46.
44. See James Gow, "Strategic Peacekeeping," 79; and Shashi Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 45-46.
45. If armed forces are to prepare for more Bosnias than Desert Storms then this has serious implications for future purchases of military equipment as well as force design and doctrine. See M. Clarke, "British Defence Policy," London Defence Studies, 30/ 31, 1996, 132.
46. There are complex issues here. The capacity of the media to lead opinion in peacekeeping or other military operations may well have been overstated, and the same can be said for the supposed irrationality of public opinion in giving or withholding its support for such operations. That said, judging from interview material derived from the UNPROFOR operation, it seems that political elites often perceive that the public is sensitive to casualties and emotionally unpredictable in their responses to events. Some of these issues are rehearsed in C. Dandeker, "Review Essay: Public Opinion and the Gulf War," Armed Forces & Society 22, 2 (Winter, 1996), 297-302.
47. See Charles Dobbie, A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping; J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations: The Problem of Legitimation."
48. See Charles Dobbie, A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping; J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations: The Problem of Legitimation."
49. Not least because the U.S. is reluctant to place its forces under the command of any non-U.S. agencies, which would, according to some critics, be unconstitutional; and this is quite apart from the practical difficulties arising from UN and national government structures of command and control revealed by the experience of UNPROFOR. See, S Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 50-52.
50. A senior French officer referred to the task of interpreting UN mandates in connection with UNPROFOR as rather like trying to make sense of the Koran. As to rules of engagement, it is well known that the British operated with far more restrictive ones than those used, for example, by the French.
51. On this see S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 52-53.
52. These issues became very apparent during the tenure of General Sir Michael Rose as UNPROFOR commander in Bosnia. Information was provided in briefings in London and from UN Secretariat officials in New York.
53. Some officers involved in UNPROFOR felt this in connection with their relations with UN policy makers.
54. See M. Janowitz, The Professional Soldier (Glencoe, IL:The Free Press, 1975), 417-440. This point is developed in C. Dandeker, "New Times for the Military: Some Sociological Remarks on the Changing Role and Structure of the Armed Forces of the Advanced Societies," British Journal of Sociology 45 (December 1994), 637-654; 644-645.
55. See M. Janowitz, The Professional Soldier (Glencoe, IL:The Free Press, 1975), 417-440. This point is developed in C. Dandeker, "New Times for the Military: Some Sociological Remarks on the Changing Role and Structure of the Armed Forces of the Advanced Societies," British Journal of Sociology 45 (December 1994), 637-654; 644-645.
56. This point about political momentum was a constant theme in interview discussions between the authors and officials concerned with the UNPROFOR operation.
57. S. Tharoor, "The Role of the United Nations," 52.
58. See J. Gow and C. Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations," 173.
59. This discussion draws on the analysis presented in James Gow and Christopher Dandeker, "Peace Support Operations," 173-174.
60. The theme of self-respect was particularly pronounced in interview discussions with French peacekeepers. General Phillipe Morillon put this position most persuasively and has now done so in public. See, for example, Ed Vulliamy, "Only Passivity is Dishonourable," The Guardian, London, 12 January 1996, 10.
61. See the comments by Morillon in Ed Vulliamy, "Only Passivity," 10.
62. We are indebted to James Burk for the analogy between the neutral peacekeeping force and value-free social science.