Cold war, post-cold war: Does it make a difference for the Middle East?

Review of International Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 271-291

  Karsh, Efraim ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031529726     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210597002714     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
2. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
3. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
4. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
5. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
6. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
7. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
8. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
9. Surprisingly enough, most Western analysts tend to overlook Moscow's predominantly regional perspective on the Middle East and to cling to the erroneous belief that Soviet policy towards this region has always been primarily motivated by global considerations. See, e.g., Robert O. Freedman, Soviet Policy toward the Middle East since 1970 (New York, 1982); Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile (Princeton, 1977); Galia Golan, Yom Kippur and After (Cambridge, 1977); Adam Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics (New York, 1983), pp. 40, 114-15, 182-3; Walter Z. Laqueur, 'Soviet Dilemmas in the Middle East', and Roman Kolkowitz, 'Soviet Policy in the Middle East', in Michael Confino and Shimon Shamir (eds.), The USSR and the Middle East (New York, 1973), pp. 77-89; Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston, MA, 1979), chs. 10, 14, 15, 30. A slightly dissenting view is presented by Adeed and Karen Dawisha, 'Perspectives on Soviet Policy in the Middle East', and Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union and the Arab World', in their edited volume, The Soviet Union in the Middle East (London, 1982).
10. L. Carl Brown, International Politics and the Middle East (Princeton, 1984), p. 16.
11. Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore, MD, 1962), p. 111.
12. M. Handel Weak States in the International System (London, 1971), pp. 132-5. To be sure, there are those who, by adopting the so-called client-centric approach, emphasize the bargaining power of the client vis-à-vis the patron and go so far as to include cases of unilateral dependence of the patron on the client within the patron-client paradigm. Such views, nevertheless, fail to comprehend the essence and inner meaning of the concept of patron (or alternatively, client) which, originating in the Latin pater, implies preponderance, authority, and seniority. Hence, any interrelationship clearly favouring the weaker partner ipso facto falls within the boundaries of the 'power of the weak', or the tail-wags-the-dog paradigm.
13. Stanley Hoffman succinctly described this interrelationship: 'When the eagle's claws are clipped the dove can save its life'. S. Hoffman, Gulliver's Troubles, Or the Setting of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1968), p. 53.
14. A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848-1918 (Oxford, 1971), p. xix.
15. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, p. 112.
16. Efraim Karsh, Soviet Policy toward Syria since 1970 (London and New York, 1991), pp. 74-6, 100-8.
17. Shahram Chubin, 'Iran and the War: From Stalemate to Ceasefire', in Efraim Karsh (ed.), The Iran-Iraq War: Impact and Implications (London, 1989), pp. 13-25.
18. See, e.g., Pravda, 18 February, 6 and 21 June, 19 August 1968; Izvestiya, 2 February 1968; Soviet Government Statement on the Middle East, Tass, 28 April 1976; Soviet proposal concerning a Middle East settlement, Tass, 1 October 1976.
19. See, e.g., Pravda, 18 February, 6 and 21 June, 19 August 1968; Izvestiya, 2 February 1968; Soviet Government Statement on the Middle East, Tass, 28 April 1976; Soviet proposal concerning a Middle East settlement, Tass, 1 October 1976.
20. See, e.g., Pravda, 18 February, 6 and 21 June, 19 August 1968; Izvestiya, 2 February 1968; Soviet Government Statement on the Middle East, Tass, 28 April 1976; Soviet proposal concerning a Middle East settlement, Tass, 1 October 1976.
21. See, e.g., Pravda, 18 February, 6 and 21 June, 19 August 1968; Izvestiya, 2 February 1968; Soviet Government Statement on the Middle East, Tass, 28 April 1976; Soviet proposal concerning a Middle East settlement, Tass, 1 October 1976.
22. e.g., Damascus Radio, 22 February, 8 March 1971; Assad's interview with the Bulgarian Communist Party organ, Rabotnichenko Delo, 2 February 1971, and with al-Anwar (Beirut), 10 August 1972.
23. e.g., Damascus Radio, 22 February, 8 March 1971; Assad's interview with the Bulgarian Communist Party organ, Rabotnichenko Delo, 2 February 1971, and with al-Anwar (Beirut), 10 August 1972.
24. e.g., Damascus Radio, 22 February, 8 March 1971; Assad's interview with the Bulgarian Communist Party organ, Rabotnichenko Delo, 2 February 1971, and with al-Anwar (Beirut), 10 August 1972.
25. Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London, 1981), p. 102; Muhammad Heikal, The Sphinx and the Commissar (London, 1978), ch. 11; Jean Lacouture, Nasser A Biography (London, 1973), pp. 330-1.
26. Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London, 1981), p. 102; Muhammad Heikal, The Sphinx and the Commissar (London, 1978), ch. 11; Jean Lacouture, Nasser: A Biography (London, 1973), pp. 330-1.
27. Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (London, 1981), p. 102; Muhammad Heikal, The Sphinx and the Commissar (London, 1978), ch. 11; Jean Lacouture, Nasser: A Biography (London, 1973), pp. 330-1.
28. Muhammad Heikal, The Road to Ramadan (New York, 1975), pp. 79-83.
29. For the June 1973 summit, see Richard Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York, 1990), pp. 884-5; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston, MA, 1982), pp. 297-9.
30. For the June 1973 summit, see Richard Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York, 1990), pp. 884-5; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston, MA, 1982), pp. 297-9.
31. Pravda, 26 September 1973. For further public Soviet warnings see, e.g., Sovyetskaya Rossiya, 13 September 1973; Izvestiya, 5 October 1973; Tass, 4 September, 4 October 1973.
32. Pravda, 26 September 1973. For further public Soviet warnings see, e.g., Sovyetskaya Rossiya, 13 September 1973; Izvestiya, 5 October 1973; Tass, 4 September, 4 October 1973.
33. Pravda, 26 September 1973. For further public Soviet warnings see, e.g., Sovyetskaya Rossiya, 13 September 1973; Izvestiya, 5 October 1973; Tass, 4 September, 4 October 1973.
34. Pravda, 26 September 1973. For further public Soviet warnings see, e.g., Sovyetskaya Rossiya, 13 September 1973; Izvestiya, 5 October 1973; Tass, 4 September, 4 October 1973.
35. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, p. 463.
36. See, e.g., Hanoch Bartov, Dado, vol. 1 (Tel Aviv, 1978), p. 314; Chaim Herzog, The War of Atonement (Boston, MA, 1975), pp. 48-50.
37. See, e.g., Hanoch Bartov, Dado, vol. 1 (Tel Aviv, 1978), p. 314; Chaim Herzog, The War of Atonement (Boston, MA, 1975), pp. 48-50.
38. Karsh, Soviet Policy towards Syria, ch. 1.
39. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
40. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
41. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
42. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
43. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
44. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
45. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
46. See, e.g., Pravda, 21 July 1988; Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Literaturnaya Gazeta, 31 May 1989; Tass, 5 September 1988; Radio Peace and Progress in Hebrew, 31 May 1988. See also interview with Vladimir Polyakov (Head of the Near East Department in the Soviet Foreign Office), in Le Quotidien de Paris, 13 October 1988, and in Izvestiya, 8 September 1989; Deputy Foreign Minister Petrovskiy's speech at the UN General Assembly as reported by Tass, 14 December 1988, and his interviews with al-Hawadith (London), 21 October 1988, and al-Qabas (Kuwait), 14 October 1988.
47. Tass, 19 June 1985, 29 October, 1 November 1988; Pravda, 20 June 1985; Krasnaya Zvezda, 1 and 3 November 1988; Moscow Radio, 24 April 1987; al-Anba (Kuwait), interview with Konstantin Geyvendov (Izvestiya's Middle Eastern commentator), 12 September 1987.
48. Tass, 19 June 1985, 29 October, 1 November 1988; Pravda, 20 June 1985; Krasnaya Zvezda, 1 and 3 November 1988; Moscow Radio, 24 April 1987; al-Anba (Kuwait), interview with Konstantin Geyvendov (Izvestiya's Middle Eastern commentator), 12 September 1987.
49. Tass, 19 June 1985, 29 October, 1 November 1988; Pravda, 20 June 1985; Krasnaya Zvezda, 1 and 3 November 1988; Moscow Radio, 24 April 1987; al-Anba (Kuwait), interview with Konstantin Geyvendov (Izvestiya's Middle Eastern commentator), 12 September 1987.
50. Tass, 19 June 1985, 29 October, 1 November 1988; Pravda, 20 June 1985; Krasnaya Zvezda, 1 and 3 November 1988; Moscow Radio, 24 April 1987; al-Anba (Kuwait), interview with Konstantin Geyvendov (Izvestiya's Middle Eastern commentator), 12 September 1987.
51. Tass, 19 June 1985, 29 October, 1 November 1988; Pravda, 20 June 1985; Krasnaya Zvezda, 1 and 3 November 1988; Moscow Radio, 24 April 1987; al-Anba (Kuwait), interview with Konstantin Geyvendov (Izvestiya's Middle Eastern commentator), 12 September 1987.
52. Damascus Radio, 8 March 1989. For further Syrian criticism of the growing Palestinian pragmatism see ibid., 19 and 20 November, 16 and 30 December 1988
53. Damascus Radio, 8 March 1989. For further Syrian criticism of the growing Palestinian pragmatism see ibid., 19 and 20 November, 16 and 30 December 1988
54. Daniel Yergin, The Prize (New York, 1991), p. 631.
55. Secret Memorandum, Executive Office of the President, from Henry A. Kissinger to the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense, 'Follow Up on the President's Talk with the Shah of Iran', 15 June 1972; Secret Memorandum, Henry A. Kissinger to the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense, 'Follow Up on the President's Talk with the Shah of Iran', 25 July 1972.
56. John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington, IN, 1981), pp. 72-4; James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (New Haven, CT, 1988), pp. 202-9.
57. John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington, IN, 1981), pp. 72-4; James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (New Haven, CT, 1988), pp. 202-9.
58. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution, p. 68.
59. Cited in Bill, Eagle and the Lion, p. 173.
60. Cited in Kissinger, White House Years, p. 224.
61. Bill, Eagle and the Lion, p. 171.
62. Ibid., pp. 178, 204; Kissinger, White House Years, p. 1262; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 533-5, 582.
63. Ibid., pp. 178, 204; Kissinger, White House Years, p. 1262; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 533-5, 582.
64. Ibid., pp. 178, 204; Kissinger, White House Years, p. 1262; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 533-5, 582.
65. House Select Committee of Intelligence Report (The Pike Report) on American involvement in the Kurdish insurrection, as reprinted in Village Voice (New York), 26 January 1976. The main findings of the report also formed the basis for two indicting articles by William Safire: 'Mr. Ford's Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 5 February 1976; 'Son of Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 12 February 1976.
66. House Select Committee of Intelligence Report (The Pike Report) on American involvement in the Kurdish insurrection, as reprinted in Village Voice (New York), 26 January 1976. The main findings of the report also formed the basis for two indicting articles by William Safire: 'Mr. Ford's Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 5 February 1976; 'Son of Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 12 February 1976.
67. House Select Committee of Intelligence Report (The Pike Report) on American involvement in the Kurdish insurrection, as reprinted in Village Voice (New York), 26 January 1976. The main findings of the report also formed the basis for two indicting articles by William Safire: 'Mr. Ford's Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 5 February 1976; 'Son of Secret Sell-out', New York Times, 12 February 1976.
68. There were of course occasional warnings of the risks attending the Shah's ambitious development programmes, some of which even questioned the prudence of predicating American national interests on the fortunes of one person, however powerful. Yet even these manifested self-doubts would normally conclude on a positive note, emphasizing the remoteness of the identified threats and the effective control being exercised by the Shah. See, e.g., 'Religious Circles', US Embassy, Iran, 15 May 1972; 'The Conduct of Relations with Iran', secret report by Department of State, Office of the Inspector General, October 1974; 'Iran: An Overview of the Shah's Economy', confidential memorandum, CIA, 16 October 1974; 'Iran's Modernizing Monarchy: A Political Assessment', secret aerogram from Richard Helms to US Department of State, 8 July 1976.
69. There were of course occasional warnings of the risks attending the Shah's ambitious development programmes, some of which even questioned the prudence of predicating American national interests on the fortunes of one person, however powerful. Yet even these manifested self-doubts would normally conclude on a positive note, emphasizing the remoteness of the identified threats and the effective control being exercised by the Shah. See, e.g., 'Religious Circles', US Embassy, Iran, 15 May 1972; 'The Conduct of Relations with Iran', secret report by Department of State, Office of the Inspector General, October 1974; 'Iran: An Overview of the Shah's Economy', confidential memorandum, CIA, 16 October 1974; 'Iran's Modernizing Monarchy: A Political Assessment', secret aerogram from Richard Helms to US Department of State, 8 July 1976.
70. There were of course occasional warnings of the risks attending the Shah's ambitious development programmes, some of which even questioned the prudence of predicating American national interests on the fortunes of one person, however powerful. Yet even these manifested self-doubts would normally conclude on a positive note, emphasizing the remoteness of the identified threats and the effective control being exercised by the Shah. See, e.g., 'Religious Circles', US Embassy, Iran, 15 May 1972; 'The Conduct of Relations with Iran', secret report by Department of State, Office of the Inspector General, October 1974; 'Iran: An Overview of the Shah's Economy', confidential memorandum, CIA, 16 October 1974; 'Iran's Modernizing Monarchy: A Political Assessment', secret aerogram from Richard Helms to US Department of State, 8 July 1976.
71. There were of course occasional warnings of the risks attending the Shah's ambitious development programmes, some of which even questioned the prudence of predicating American national interests on the fortunes of one person, however powerful. Yet even these manifested self-doubts would normally conclude on a positive note, emphasizing the remoteness of the identified threats and the effective control being exercised by the Shah. See, e.g., 'Religious Circles', US Embassy, Iran, 15 May 1972; 'The Conduct of Relations with Iran', secret report by Department of State, Office of the Inspector General, October 1974; 'Iran: An Overview of the Shah's Economy', confidential memorandum, CIA, 16 October 1974; 'Iran's Modernizing Monarchy: A Political Assessment', secret aerogram from Richard Helms to US Department of State, 8 July 1976.
72. 'The Future of Iran', Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, drafted by Franklin P. Huddle, 28 January 1977.
73. See, e.g., 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, 5 October 1977; William H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran (New York, 1981), p. 155.
74. See, e.g., 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, 5 October 1977; William H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran (New York, 1981), p. 155.
75. 'Your Appearance before the House International Relations Committee, Thursday, July 28, 10am on the Sale of AWACS to Iran', Memorandum to Cyrus Vance from Alfred Roy Atherton, 27 July 1977.
76. 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, August 1977; 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, 5 October 1977 (emphasis added).
77. 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, August 1977; 'Iran in the 1980s', Secret Report, CIA, 5 October 1977 (emphasis added).
78. Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy (New York, 1983), pp. 325, 329.
79. See, e.g , 'Pessimism About Iranian Stability', Confidential Memorandum by Theodore H. Moran, Consultant to Policy Planning Staff, to Department of State, drafted by Precht Henry, 18 October 1978; 'The Politics of Ayatollah Khomeini', Intelligence Memorandum, CIA, 20 November 1978; 'Iran Update on Moharram', Secret alert Memorandum, CIA, 5 December 1978.
80. See, e.g , 'Pessimism About Iranian Stability', Confidential Memorandum by Theodore H. Moran, Consultant to Policy Planning Staff, to Department of State, drafted by Precht Henry, 18 October 1978; 'The Politics of Ayatollah Khomeini', Intelligence Memorandum, CIA, 20 November 1978; 'Iran Update on Moharram', Secret alert Memorandum, CIA, 5 December 1978.
81. See, e.g , 'Pessimism About Iranian Stability', Confidential Memorandum by Theodore H. Moran, Consultant to Policy Planning Staff, to Department of State, drafted by Precht Henry, 18 October 1978; 'The Politics of Ayatollah Khomeini', Intelligence Memorandum, CIA, 20 November 1978; 'Iran Update on Moharram', Secret alert Memorandum, CIA, 5 December 1978.
82. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor 1977-1981 (London, 1983), pp. 371-82; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, pp. 249-57.
83. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor 1977-1981 (London, 1983), pp. 371-82; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, pp. 249-57.
84. The analysis in this section draws on Lawrence Freedman and Efraim Karsh, The Gulf Conflict 1990-1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order (Princeton, 1993).
85. International Herald Tribune, 13-14 July 1991.
86. Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York, 1991), p. 212.
87. New York Times, 23 September 1990; International Herald Tribune 13-14 July 1991; Financial Times, 27 July 1990.
88. New York Times, 23 September 1990; International Herald Tribune 13-14 July 1991; Financial Times, 27 July 1990.
89. New York Times, 23 September 1990; International Herald Tribune 13-14 July 1991; Financial Times, 27 July 1990.
90. Fred Halliday, 'The Gulf War 1990-1991 and the Study of International Relations', Review of International Studies, 20 (1994), pp. 115-16.
91. U.S. News and World Report, Triumph without Victory (New York, 1992), p. 195.
92. George Joffe, 'The Multinational Build-up: Options, Opportunities and Anxieties', Middle East International, 28 (Sept. 1990), p. 4.
93. Edward Said, 'The Morning After', London Review of Books, 21 October 1993, p. 3.
94. Russell A. Stone, Social Change in Israel: Attitudes and Events 1967-1979 (New York, 1982), p. 41; Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics (Berkeley, CA, 1983), pp. 175-8.
95. Russell A. Stone, Social Change in Israel: Attitudes and Events 1967-1979 (New York, 1982), p. 41; Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics (Berkeley, CA, 1983), pp. 175-8.
96. Zeev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari, Israel's Lebanon War (London, 1984), p. 304.
97. See E. Inbar, 'The "No Choice War" Debate in Israel', Journal of Strategic Studies, 12 (Mar. 1989), pp. 22-37.
98. e.g. Damascus Radio, 4, 5 and 10 March 1991.
99. For the Palestinian refusal to join the peace process see Said, Morning After, p. 3.