Rebellious poles: Political crises and popular protest under state socialism, 1945-89

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 299-337

  Ekiert, Grzegorz ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031529433     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325497011002006     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. Krystyna Kersten, Miȩdzy wyzwoleniem a zniewoleniem. Polska 1944-1956 (London: Aneks, 1993), iv.
2. For a critique of such approaches see, for example, Elemer Hankiss, "Demobilization, Self-Mobilization, and Quasi-Mobilization in Hungary 1948-1987," East European Politics and Societies 3:1 (1989): 105-52; and David Stark and Victor Nee, "Toward an Institutional Analysis of State Socialism," in Victor Nee and David Stark, eds., Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989), 1-31.
3. For a critique of such approaches see, for example, Elemer Hankiss, "Demobilization, Self-Mobilization, and Quasi-Mobilization in Hungary 1948-1987," East European Politics and Societies 3:1 (1989): 105-52; and David Stark and Victor Nee, "Toward an Institutional Analysis of State Socialism," in Victor Nee and David Stark, eds., Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989), 1-31.
4. Vaclav Havel emphasizes this point, arguing that "in societies under the posttotalitarian system, all political life in the traditional sense has been eliminated. People have no opportunity to express themselves politically in public, let alone to organize politically. The gap that results is filled by ideological ritual," The Power of the Powerless (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1985), 49.
5. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
6. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
7. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
8. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
9. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
10. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
11. As many studies of protest in various social and political systems convincingly demonstrate, under conditions of social and political oppression open acts of defiance are few, but, at the same time, intricate forms of everyday resistance develop. See, for example, James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Robert P. Weller and Scott E. Guggenheim, eds., Power and Protest in the Countryside (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); Forrest D. Colburn, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich: Bavaria 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); and Jeffrey Kopstein, "Chipping Away at the State. Workers' Resistance and the Demise of East Germany," World Politics 48 (April 1996): 391-423.
12. For the seminal work analyzing the role of the political opportunity structure in facilitating collective protest, see Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978). Various applications of the concept and its theoretical ramifications are analyzed by Doug McAdam, "Political Opportunities: Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 23-40.
13. For the seminal work analyzing the role of the political opportunity structure in facilitating collective protest, see Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978). Various applications of the concept and its theoretical ramifications are analyzed by Doug McAdam, "Political Opportunities: Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 23-40.
14. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 99.
15. Sydney Tarrow, "National Politics and Collective Action: Recent Theory and Research in Western Europe and the United States," Annual Review of Sociology 14 (1988): 429-30.
16. There was one more period of collective action and protest in the postwar history of state-socialist regimes. Between 1945 and 1948, during the imposition of communist rule, various groups and political forces opposed takeover of power by the Communists by a variety of means, including armed struggle. The consolidation of these regimes by 1948 and their growing repressiveness led to annihilation of the political opposition and a rapid decline in the scope and frequency of collective action.
17. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement, 153. For empirical application of the concept see his Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy 1965-1975 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).
18. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement, 153. For empirical application of the concept see his Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy 1965-1975 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).
19. Sydney Tarrow, "Struggle, Politics and Reform: Collective Action, Social Movements, and Cycles of Protest," Western Societies Program, Occasional Paper No. 21, Center for International Studies, Cornell University (1991), 44.
20. Jadwiga Staniszkis, analyzing Polish experiences under communist rule, suggests that regulation through crisis was a characteristic feature of the regime, which lacked independent political and economic mechanisms of self-regulation. See her book Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 249-78. This point has been developed further, emphasizing that the evolution of state-socialist regimes was in large measure crisis-driven - that is, shaped by the nature and consequences of major revolts they experienced. See Grzegorz Ekiert, The State Against Society: Political Crises and Their Aftermath in East Central Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
21. Jadwiga Staniszkis, analyzing Polish experiences under communist rule, suggests that regulation through crisis was a characteristic feature of the regime, which lacked independent political and economic mechanisms of self-regulation. See her book Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 249-78. This point has been developed further, emphasizing that the evolution of state-socialist regimes was in large measure crisis-driven - that is, shaped by the nature and consequences of major revolts they experienced. See Grzegorz Ekiert, The State Against Society: Political Crises and Their Aftermath in East Central Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
22. This argument is influenced by William Sewell, who in his paper on strategies of historical analysis argues that "contingent, unexpected, and inherently unpredictable events {. . .} can undo or alter the most apparently durable trends of history" ("Three Temporalities: Toward a Sociology of the Event," CSST Working Papers, No. 58, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1990, 17). Events can produce enduring and diverse legacies. They often generate profound changes in the institutional characteristics of regimes. In some cases, they can only transform the political practices of political regimes, leaving their formal institutional characteristics intact. Thus, it is possible that formally similar or even identical regimes can display profound differences in the political opportunity structure they offer to potential or real challengers.
23. See, for example, George Schopflin, "Poland and Eastern Europe," in Abraham Brumberg, ed., Poland, Genesis of a Revolution (New York: Random House, 1983), 123-34.
24. Krzysztof Pomian describes Poland as the only Soviet-bloc country where "authorities were afraid of the working class, not the other way around," in Wymiary polskiego konfliktu 1956-1981 (London: Aneks, 1985), 10.
25. Abraham Brumberg, for example, argues that "nowhere had the endemic communist failures to erect an economic system at once rational, productive, and at least moderately equitable been so disastrous as in Poland," See his "Introduction" to Poland, Genesis of a Revolution, x.
26. Nancy Bermeo emphasized the importance of political learning in regime transitions in her article "Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship," Comparative Politics 24:3 (1992): 273-91.
27. Krystyna Kersten (pen name J. Bujnowski), "O oporze 1944-1948 czyli o poszukiwaniu propozycji," Krytyka 17 (1984): 163-64. See also Krystyna Kersten, "Społeczeństwo polskie wobec włfadzy ustanowionej przez komunistów, 1944-1947," in Miroslawa Marody and Antoni Sulek, eds., Rzeczywistość polska i sposoby radzenia sobie z nia (Warszawa: UW IS, 1987), 9-36; and Barbara Otwinowska and Jan Zaryn, eds., Polacy wobec przemocy 1944-19)6 (Warszawa: Editions Spotkania, 1996).
28. Krystyna Kersten (pen name J. Bujnowski), "O oporze 1944-1948 czyli o poszukiwaniu propozycji," Krytyka 17 (1984): 163-64. See also Krystyna Kersten, "Społeczeństwo polskie wobec włfadzy ustanowionej przez komunistów, 1944-1947," in Miroslawa Marody and Antoni Sulek, eds., Rzeczywistość polska i sposoby radzenia sobie z nia (Warszawa: UW IS, 1987), 9-36; and Barbara Otwinowska and Jan Zaryn, eds., Polacy wobec przemocy 1944-19)6 (Warszawa: Editions Spotkania, 1996).
29. Krystyna Kersten (pen name J. Bujnowski), "O oporze 1944-1948 czyli o poszukiwaniu propozycji," Krytyka 17 (1984): 163-64. See also Krystyna Kersten, "Społeczeństwo polskie wobec włfadzy ustanowionej przez komunistów, 1944-1947," in Miroslawa Marody and Antoni Sulek, eds., Rzeczywistość polska i sposoby radzenia sobie z nia (Warszawa: UW IS, 1987), 9-36; and Barbara Otwinowska and Jan Zaryn, eds., Polacy wobec przemocy 1944-1956 (Warszawa: Editions Spotkania, 1996).
30. See Zenon Jakubowski, Milicja Obywatelska, 1944-1948 (Warszawa: PWN, 1988), 157; and Zygmunt Wozniczka, Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawislość (Warszawa: Novum-Semex, 1992), 16-18. See also Zygmunt Hemmerling and Marek Nadolski, eds., Opozycja antykomunistyczna w Polsce 1944-1956. Wybór dokumentów (Warszawa: Ośrodek Badan Społecznych, 1990) and Zdzislaw Szpakowski, "Zbrojne podziemie antykomunistyczne," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 34-78.
31. See Zenon Jakubowski, Milicja Obywatelska, 1944-1948 (Warszawa: PWN, 1988), 157; and Zygmunt Wozniczka, Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawislość (Warszawa: Novum-Semex, 1992), 16-18. See also Zygmunt Hemmerling and Marek Nadolski, eds., Opozycja antykomunistyczna w Polsce 1944-1956. Wybór dokumentów (Warszawa: Ośrodek Badan Społecznych, 1990) and Zdzislaw Szpakowski, "Zbrojne podziemie antykomunistyczne," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 34-78.
32. See Zenon Jakubowski, Milicja Obywatelska, 1944-1948 (Warszawa: PWN, 1988), 157; and Zygmunt Wozniczka, Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawislość (Warszawa: Novum-Semex, 1992), 16-18. See also Zygmunt Hemmerling and Marek Nadolski, eds., Opozycja antykomunistyczna w Polsce 1944-1956. Wybór dokumentów (Warszawa: Ośrodek Badan Społecznych, 1990) and Zdzislaw Szpakowski, "Zbrojne podziemie antykomunistyczne," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 34-78.
33. See Zenon Jakubowski, Milicja Obywatelska, 1944-1948 (Warszawa: PWN, 1988), 157; and Zygmunt Wozniczka, Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawislość (Warszawa: Novum-Semex, 1992), 16-18. See also Zygmunt Hemmerling and Marek Nadolski, eds., Opozycja antykomunistyczna w Polsce 1944-1956. Wybór dokumentów (Warszawa: Ośrodek Badan Społecznych, 1990) and Zdzislaw Szpakowski, "Zbrojne podziemie antykomunistyczne," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 34-78.
34. See Maria Turlejska, "Komuniści wobec społeczeństwa polskiego. Ciaglość i zmiana techniki wladzy," in Rzeczywistość polska, 42-43. See also Andrzej Paczkowski, ed., Aparat bezpieczeństwa w latach 1944-1956. Taktyka, strategia, metody (Warszawa: ISP PAN, 1994); Stanislaw Marat and Jacek Snopkiewicz, eds., Ludzie bezpieki. Dokumentacja czasu bezprawia (Warszawa: Alfa, 1990); and Maria Turlejska, Te pokolenia żałbami czarne . . . Skazani na śmierc i ich sedziowie (Warszawa: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1990).
35. See Maria Turlejska, "Komuniści wobec społeczeństwa polskiego. Ciaglość i zmiana techniki wladzy," in Rzeczywistość polska, 42-43. See also Andrzej Paczkowski, ed., Aparat bezpieczeństwa w latach 1944-1956. Taktyka, strategia, metody (Warszawa: ISP PAN, 1994); Stanislaw Marat and Jacek Snopkiewicz, eds., Ludzie bezpieki. Dokumentacja czasu bezprawia (Warszawa: Alfa, 1990); and Maria Turlejska, Te pokolenia żałbami czarne . . . Skazani na śmierc i ich sedziowie (Warszawa: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1990).
36. See Maria Turlejska, "Komuniści wobec społeczeństwa polskiego. Ciaglość i zmiana techniki wladzy," in Rzeczywistość polska, 42-43. See also Andrzej Paczkowski, ed., Aparat bezpieczeństwa w latach 1944-1956. Taktyka, strategia, metody (Warszawa: ISP PAN, 1994); Stanislaw Marat and Jacek Snopkiewicz, eds., Ludzie bezpieki. Dokumentacja czasu bezprawia (Warszawa: Alfa, 1990); and Maria Turlejska, Te pokolenia żałbami czarne . . . Skazani na śmierc i ich sedziowie (Warszawa: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1990).
37. See Maria Turlejska, "Komuniści wobec społeczeństwa polskiego. Ciaglość i zmiana techniki wladzy," in Rzeczywistość polska, 42-43. See also Andrzej Paczkowski, ed., Aparat bezpieczeństwa w latach 1944-1956. Taktyka, strategia, metody (Warszawa: ISP PAN, 1994); Stanislaw Marat and Jacek Snopkiewicz, eds., Ludzie bezpieki. Dokumentacja czasu bezprawia (Warszawa: Alfa, 1990); and Maria Turlejska, Te pokolenia żałbami czarne . . . Skazani na śmierc i ich sedziowie (Warszawa: Niezalezna Oficyna Wydawnicza, 1990).
38. See Jan Zaryn, "Ostatnia 'legalna opozycja' polityczna w Polsce 1944-1947," in Polacy wobec przemcy, 80-120; Tadeusz Kostewicz, "Terror i represje," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 121-78; and Andrzej Paczkowski, Stanisław Mikołajczyk, czyli klȩska realisty (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1991).
39. See Jan Zaryn, "Ostatnia 'legalna opozycja' polityczna w Polsce 1944-1947," in Polacy wobec przemcy, 80-120; Tadeusz Kostewicz, "Terror i represje," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 121-78; and Andrzej Paczkowski, Stanisław Mikołajczyk, czyli klȩska realisty (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1991).
40. See Jan Zaryn, "Ostatnia 'legalna opozycja' polityczna w Polsce 1944-1947," in Polacy wobec przemcy, 80-120; Tadeusz Kostewicz, "Terror i represje," in Polacy wobec przemocy, 121-78; and Andrzej Paczkowski, Stanisław Mikołajczyk, czyli klȩska realisty (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1991).
41. See Wojciech Mazowiecki, Wydarzenia 3 maja 1946 (Paris: Libella, 1989); and Czeslaw Brzoza, 3 Maja 1946 w Krakowie (Kraków: Ksiȩgarnia Akademicka, 1996).
42. See Wojciech Mazowiecki, Wydarzenia 3 maja 1946 (Paris: Libella, 1989); and Czeslaw Brzoza, 3 Maja 1946 w Krakowie (Kraków: Ksiȩgarnia Akademicka, 1996).
43. See Kazimierz Kloc, "Strajki w przemysle w pierwszych latach Polski Ludowej," Studia nad Ruchami Spolecznymi 2 (1989): 5-41; Helena Gnatowska, "Strajki w Polsce w latach 1945-1947 w swietle dokumentów PPR," Z Pola Walki 3 (1985): 103-12; Krystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu w̧adzy. Polska 1943-1948 (Poznań: SAWW, 1990), 222-23; and Padraic Kenney, "Working-class Community and Resistance in Pre-Stalinist Poland: The Poznanski Textile Strike, Lodz, September 1947," Social History 18:1 (1993): 31-51.
44. See Kazimierz Kloc, "Strajki w przemysle w pierwszych latach Polski Ludowej," Studia nad Ruchami Spolecznymi 2 (1989): 5-41; Helena Gnatowska, "Strajki w Polsce w latach 1945-1947 w swietle dokumentów PPR," Z Pola Walki 3 (1985): 103-12; Krystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu w̧adzy. Polska 1943-1948 (Poznań: SAWW, 1990), 222-23; and Padraic Kenney, "Working-class Community and Resistance in Pre-Stalinist Poland: The Poznanski Textile Strike, Lodz, September 1947," Social History 18:1 (1993): 31-51.
45. See Kazimierz Kloc, "Strajki w przemysle w pierwszych latach Polski Ludowej," Studia nad Ruchami Spolecznymi 2 (1989): 5-41; Helena Gnatowska, "Strajki w Polsce w latach 1945-1947 w swietle dokumentów PPR," Z Pola Walki 3 (1985): 103-12; Krystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu w̧adzy. Polska 1943-1948 (Poznań: SAWW, 1990), 222-23; and Padraic Kenney, "Working-class Community and Resistance in Pre-Stalinist Poland: The Poznanski Textile Strike, Lodz, September 1947," Social History 18:1 (1993): 31-51.
46. See Kazimierz Kloc, "Strajki w przemysle w pierwszych latach Polski Ludowej," Studia nad Ruchami Spolecznymi 2 (1989): 5-41; Helena Gnatowska, "Strajki w Polsce w latach 1945-1947 w swietle dokumentów PPR," Z Pola Walki 3 (1985): 103-12; Krystyna Kersten, Narodziny systemu w̧adzy. Polska 1943-1948 (Poznań: SAWW, 1990), 222-23; and Padraic Kenney, "Working-class Community and Resistance in Pre-Stalinist Poland: The Poznanski Textile Strike, Lodz, September 1947," Social History 18:1 (1993): 31-51.
47. These rehabilitations were restricted to former party members and leaders who had been purged by Stalinists in internal fighting for power. Most of them, like Gomułka, Spychalski, and Kliszko in Poland, or Kadar, Szakasits, and Marosan in Hungary, played a crucial role in subsequent political events. In Poland, rehabilitation affected some 200 people, including the leaders of the Polish prewar Communist party killed by Stalin. Moreover, about 35,000 mostly political prisoners were released in the spring of 1956 and investigations of political offenses were terminated.
48. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
49. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
50. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
51. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
52. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
53. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
54. More detailed descriptions of the Poznań events and interpretations of the tevolt can be found in Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Polish Revolution of 1956 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957); Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1982); and official documents concerning the revolt in Paul Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1956). Also, during the Solidarity period in Poland the conference of historians organized for the anniversary of the events carefully examined the whole episode. See Jarosław Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowiczowa, Poznański Czerwiec 1956 2nd ed. (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1990). The Polish regime responded to this work with its own interpretation of events. See Antoni Czubinski, Czerwiec 1956 w Poznaniu (Warszawa: KAW, 1986). After 1989, several new analyses of the Poznan rebellion were published. See, for example, Maciej R. Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan: Lawica, 1992) and Edward J. Nalepa, Pacyfikacja zbuntowanego miasta (Warszawa: Bellona, 1992).
55. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
56. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
57. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
58. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
59. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
60. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
61. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
62. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
63. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
64. For detailed accounts of party meetings and intraparty conflicts and struggles see Flora Lewis, A Case History of Hope: The Story of Poland's Peaceful Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1958); and Jakub Karpinski, Count-Down. It should be emphasized that, surprisingly, the Polish crisis of 1956 was not studied and examined as comprehensively as other cases of crises were (see George Sakwa, "The Polish 'October': A Re-Appraisal Through Historiography," Polish Review 23:3 (1978): 62-78. Jadwiga Staniszkis offers an interesting interpretation of the crisis in his Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 278-312. Only recently have Polish historians published systematic analyses of these events. See Pazdziernik '56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spoldziel-cze, 1987); Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wiesław Władyka, Polska Próba. Październik '56 (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989); Benon Dymek, ed., Październik 7956. Szkice historyczne (Warszawa: s.n., 1989); Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku (Warszawa: PWN, 1989); Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warszawa: Mowia Wieki, 1993); and Wiesław Władyka, Październik 56 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994).
65. See Jerzy Eisler, "Polskie radio wobec wydarzeń w kraju w 1956 r.," Krytyka 40 (1993): 146-63; Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku: and Robert Jarocki, Tygodnik Powszechny: Czterdziesci piȩć lat w opozycji (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1990).
66. See Jerzy Eisler, "Polskie radio wobec wydarzeń w kraju w 1956 r.," Krytyka 40 (1993): 146-63; Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku: and Robert Jarocki, Tygodnik Powszechny: Czterdziesci piȩć lat w opozycji (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1990).
67. See Jerzy Eisler, "Polskie radio wobec wydarzeń w kraju w 1956 r.," Krytyka 40 (1993): 146-63; Wiesław Władyka, Na czołowce: Prasa w Pazdzierniku 1956 roku: and Robert Jarocki, Tygodnik Powszechny: Czterdziesci piȩć lat w opozycji (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1990).
68. Karpinski, Count-Down, 105.
69. See Krystyna Kersten, "Rok 1956 - punkt zwrotny," Krytyka 40 (1993): 142-43.
70. Kersten, "Rok 1956," 145. See also Włodzimierz Brus, "Trwałe konsekwencje 'Polskiego Października,' " in 1956 w dwadziescia lat później z mysla o przyszlosci (London: Aneks, 1978), 53-62.
71. Kersten, "Rok 1956," 145. See also Włodzimierz Brus, "Trwałe konsekwencje 'Polskiego Października,' " in 1956 w dwadziescia lat później z mysla o przyszlosci (London: Aneks, 1978), 53-62.
72. Jerzy Holzer, "Kryzysy i przezwyciȩzanie kryzysów w państwach komunistycznych," Krytyka 34-35 (1991): 40.
73. A detailed description and interpretation of the events can be found in Karpinski, Count-Down, 105-38; Jack Bielasiak, "Social Confrontation to Contrived Crisis: March 1968 in Poland," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 81-105; and, above all, Jerzy Eisler, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: PWN, 1991). See also Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism 37 (May-August 1988): 43-54, for an original interpretation. The official point of view of the Polish regime may be found in Bogdan Hillebrandt, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spółdzielcze, 1986).
74. A detailed description and interpretation of the events can be found in Karpinski, Count-Down, 105-38; Jack Bielasiak, "Social Confrontation to Contrived Crisis: March 1968 in Poland," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 81-105; and, above all, Jerzy Eisler, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: PWN, 1991). See also Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism 37 (May-August 1988): 43-54, for an original interpretation. The official point of view of the Polish regime may be found in Bogdan Hillebrandt, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spółdzielcze, 1986).
75. A detailed description and interpretation of the events can be found in Karpinski, Count-Down, 105-38; Jack Bielasiak, "Social Confrontation to Contrived Crisis: March 1968 in Poland," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 81-105; and, above all, Jerzy Eisler, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: PWN, 1991). See also Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism 37 (May-August 1988): 43-54, for an original interpretation. The official point of view of the Polish regime may be found in Bogdan Hillebrandt, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spółdzielcze, 1986).
76. A detailed description and interpretation of the events can be found in Karpinski, Count-Down, 105-38; Jack Bielasiak, "Social Confrontation to Contrived Crisis: March 1968 in Poland," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 81-105; and, above all, Jerzy Eisler, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: PWN, 1991). See also Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism 37 (May-August 1988): 43-54, for an original interpretation. The official point of view of the Polish regime may be found in Bogdan Hillebrandt, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spółdzielcze, 1986).
77. A detailed description and interpretation of the events can be found in Karpinski, Count-Down, 105-38; Jack Bielasiak, "Social Confrontation to Contrived Crisis: March 1968 in Poland," East European Quarterly 22:1 (1988): 81-105; and, above all, Jerzy Eisler, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: PWN, 1991). See also Andrzej Flis, "Crisis and Political Ritual in Postwar Poland," Problems of Communism 37 (May-August 1988): 43-54, for an original interpretation. The official point of view of the Polish regime may be found in Bogdan Hillebrandt, Marzec 1968 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Spółdzielcze, 1986).
78. Jack Bielasiak, "The Party: Permanent Crisis," in Poland, Genesis of a Revolution, 15.
79. Leszek Kolakowski, "The Intelligentsia," in Poland: Genesis of a Revolution, 62.
80. Adam Michnik, "Dziedzictwo Marca," in Marzec '68: Sesja w Uniwersytecie Warszawskim 1981 r., vol. 2 (Warszawa: Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza SOWA, 1981), 34. See also his The Church and the Left, trans. David Ost (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
81. Adam Michnik, "Dziedzictwo Marca," in Marzec '68: Sesja w Uniwersytecie Warszawskim 1981 r., vol. 2 (Warszawa: Studencka Oficyna Wydawnicza SOWA, 1981), 34. See also his The Church and the Left, trans. David Ost (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
82. Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981: Geneza i historia (Patyż: Instytut Literacki, 1984), 19.
83. Eisler, Marzec 1968, 411.
84. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
85. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
86. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
87. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
88. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
89. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
90. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys
91. For a more detailed analysis of December 1970 events in Poland see Karpinski, Count-Dwon, 157-66; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 15-82; Zygmunt Korybutowicz, Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1983); Andrzej Głowacki, Kryzys polityczny 1970 roku (Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwia̧zków Zawodowych, 1990); and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70: Wewnatrz 'Bialego Domu' (Warszawa: Colibri, 1991). Testimonies of participants in Szczecin events may be found in Małgorzata Szejnert and Tomasz Zalewski, Szczecin: Grudzień-Sierpień-Grudzień (London: Aneks, 1986) and Grudzień 1970 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1986). For an interpretation that reflects the Polish Communist party's point of view, see Mieczysław F. Rakowski, Przesilenie grudniowe (Warszawa: PIW, 1981).
92. The actual number of casualties is still unknown but is estimated at several hundred. See Jerzy Eisler, Przedslowie, in Wojsko Polskie w Grudniu 1970, 5-27.
93. During these events, regular military forces were employed in some 100 actions in all regions of the country, involving 61,000 soldiers, 1,700 tanks, 1,750 personnel carriers, and units of the air force and navy (see Ryszard J. Kukliński, "Wojna z narodem widziana od środka," Kultura (April 1987): 14). In the Baltic coast cities, 27,000 soldiers, 550 tanks, and 750 personnel carriers took part in pacifying the workers' rebellion. See also Edward J. Nalepa, Wojsko Polskie w Grudniu 1970 (Warszawa: Bellona, 1990); Luba Fajfer, "The Polish Military and the Crisis of 1970," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 26:2 (1993): 205-25; and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70, 19-20 and 137-66.
94. During these events, regular military forces were employed in some 100 actions in all regions of the country, involving 61,000 soldiers, 1,700 tanks, 1,750 personnel carriers, and units of the air force and navy (see Ryszard J. Kukliński, "Wojna z narodem widziana od środka," Kultura (April 1987): 14). In the Baltic coast cities, 27,000 soldiers, 550 tanks, and 750 personnel carriers took part in pacifying the workers' rebellion. See also Edward J. Nalepa, Wojsko Polskie w Grudniu 1970 (Warszawa: Bellona, 1990); Luba Fajfer, "The Polish Military and the Crisis of 1970," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 26:2 (1993): 205-25; and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70, 19-20 and 137-66.
95. During these events, regular military forces were employed in some 100 actions in all regions of the country, involving 61,000 soldiers, 1,700 tanks, 1,750 personnel carriers, and units of the air force and navy (see Ryszard J. Kukliński, "Wojna z narodem widziana od środka," Kultura (April 1987): 14). In the Baltic coast cities, 27,000 soldiers, 550 tanks, and 750 personnel carriers took part in pacifying the workers' rebellion. See also Edward J. Nalepa, Wojsko Polskie w Grudniu 1970 (Warszawa: Bellona, 1990); Luba Fajfer, "The Polish Military and the Crisis of 1970," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 26:2 (1993): 205-25; and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70, 19-20 and 137-66.
96. During these events, regular military forces were employed in some 100 actions in all regions of the country, involving 61,000 soldiers, 1,700 tanks, 1,750 personnel carriers, and units of the air force and navy (see Ryszard J. Kukliński, "Wojna z narodem widziana od środka," Kultura (April 1987): 14). In the Baltic coast cities, 27,000 soldiers, 550 tanks, and 750 personnel carriers took part in pacifying the workers' rebellion. See also Edward J. Nalepa, Wojsko Polskie w Grudniu 1970 (Warszawa: Bellona, 1990); Luba Fajfer, "The Polish Military and the Crisis of 1970," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 26:2 (1993): 205-25; and Jerzy Eisler and Stanisław Trepczynski, Grudzień '70, 19-20 and 137-66.
97. See Beata Chmiel and Elżbieta Kaczyńska, eds., Postulaty 1970-71 i 1980 (Warszawa: Universytet Warszawski, 1988).
98. Laba, The Roots of Solidarity, 11.
99. In Szczecin in 1970, for example, workers demanded "regular and reliable information about the country's political and economic station in national mass media." In 1980 in Gdańsk, they demanded "the enforcement of freedom of speech, print and publication as guaranteed in the Polish constitution." In Szczecin in 1971, workers demanded the "immediate and legitimate elections of trade union authorities, workers councils and {. . .} democratic election in the party and youth organization on the factory level." In 1980 in Gdańsk, workers demanded the "recognition of free trade unions independent from the Party and employers as codified in the World Labor Organizations convention No. 87 ratified by the Polish government." See Piotr Marciniak, "Horyzont programowy strajków 1980 r.," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 2 (1989): 153-54.
100. For the debate of the origin of the Solidarity movement see Michael Bernhard, "Reinterpreting Solidarity," Studies in Comparative Communism 24:3 ( 1991 ): 313-30; and Jan Kubik, Who Done It: Workers or Intellectuals? Controversy Over Solidarity's Origin and Social Composition," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 441-66.
101. For the debate of the origin of the Solidarity movement see Michael Bernhard, "Reinterpreting Solidarity," Studies in Comparative Communism 24:3 ( 1991 ): 313-30; and Jan Kubik, Who Done It: Workers or Intellectuals? Controversy Over Solidarity's Origin and Social Composition," Theory and Society 23 (1994): 441-66.
102. See Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution, 257.
103. Street demonstrations also took place in Plock but were much less violent than in the other two places. For a detailed analysis of June 1976 events see Michael Bernhard, "The Strikes of June 1976 in Poland," East European Politics and Societies 1:3 (1987): 363-92; Michael Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 46-75; Jan J. Lipski, KOR (London: Aneks, 1983), 30-40; and Karpinski, Count-Down, 191-97. For a selection of documents see Wieslaw M. Mizerski, Radomski Czerwiec 1976 (Lublin: Norbertinum, 1991).
104. Street demonstrations also took place in Plock but were much less violent than in the other two places. For a detailed analysis of June 1976 events see Michael Bernhard, "The Strikes of June 1976 in Poland," East European Politics and Societies 1:3 (1987): 363-92; Michael Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 46-75; Jan J. Lipski, KOR (London: Aneks, 1983), 30-40; and Karpinski, Count-Down, 191-97. For a selection of documents see Wieslaw M. Mizerski, Radomski Czerwiec 1976 (Lublin: Norbertinum, 1991).
105. Street demonstrations also took place in Plock but were much less violent than in the other two places. For a detailed analysis of June 1976 events see Michael Bernhard, "The Strikes of June 1976 in Poland," East European Politics and Societies 1:3 (1987): 363-92; Michael Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 46-75; Jan J. Lipski, KOR (London: Aneks, 1983), 30-40; and Karpinski, Count-Down, 191-97. For a selection of documents see Wieslaw M. Mizerski, Radomski Czerwiec 1976 (Lublin: Norbertinum, 1991).
106. Street demonstrations also took place in Plock but were much less violent than in the other two places. For a detailed analysis of June 1976 events see Michael Bernhard, "The Strikes of June 1976 in Poland," East European Politics and Societies 1:3 (1987): 363-92; Michael Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 46-75; Jan J. Lipski, KOR (London: Aneks, 1983), 30-40; and Karpinski, Count-Down, 191-97. For a selection of documents see Wieslaw M. Mizerski, Radomski Czerwiec 1976 (Lublin: Norbertinum, 1991).
107. Street demonstrations also took place in Plock but were much less violent than in the other two places. For a detailed analysis of June 1976 events see Michael Bernhard, "The Strikes of June 1976 in Poland," East European Politics and Societies 1:3 (1987): 363-92; Michael Bernhard, The Origins of Democratization in Poland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 46-75; Jan J. Lipski, KOR (London: Aneks, 1983), 30-40; and Karpinski, Count-Down, 191-97. For a selection of documents see Wieslaw M. Mizerski, Radomski Czerwiec 1976 (Lublin: Norbertinum, 1991).
108. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
109. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
110. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
111. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
112. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
113. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
114. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
115. For a detailed analysis of independent groups and initiatives see Michael Bernhard, The Origin of Democralization in Poland: Peter Raina, Independent Social Movements in Poland (London: London School of Economics and Politics, 1981); Jan J. Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981, trans. Olga Amsterdamska and Gene Moore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Stefan Kawalec, Demokratyczna Opozycja w Polsce (New York: Wydawnictwo Głos, 1979); and Jerzy Holzer, Solidarność 1980-1981 (Paris: Instytut Literacki, 1984). See also Brumberg, Poland: Genesis of a Revolution; Martin Myant, Poland: A Crisis for Socialism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982); and Keith J. Lepak, Prelude to Solidarity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
116. For a comprehensive analysis of this period, emphasizing the significance of papal visits to Poland for the emergence of the Solidarity movement, see Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994).
117. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
118. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
119. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
120. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
121. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
122. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
123. The period of Solidarity in Poland already has an extensive bibliography. Competent analyses of events can be found in Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Alain Touraine et al., Solidarity: Poland 1980-1981 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1983); Staniszkis, Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution; Holzer, Solidarnosc, 1980-1981; David Ost, Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Laba, The Roots of Solidarity; Lawrence Goodwyn, Breaking the Barriers: The Rise of Solidarity in Poland (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Michael D. Kennedy, Professionals, Power and Solidarity in Poland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
124. Alex Pravda, "The Workers," in Poland: Genesis of a Revolution, 68. See also Ireneusz Krzemiński, Czego chcieli, o czym myśleli ? Analiza postulatów robotników Wybrzeza z 1970 i 1980 (Warszawa: IS UW 1987); and Piotr Marciniak, "Horyzont programowy strajków 1980 r."
125. Alex Pravda, "The Workers," in Poland: Genesis of a Revolution, 68. See also Ireneusz Krzemiński, Czego chcieli, o czym myśleli ? Analiza postulatów robotników Wybrzeza z 1970 i 1980 (Warszawa: IS UW 1987); and Piotr Marciniak, "Horyzont programowy strajków 1980 r."
126. Alex Pravda, "The Workers," in Poland: Genesis of a Revolution, 68. See also Ireneusz Krzemiński, Czego chcieli, o czym myśleli ? Analiza postulatów robotników Wybrzeza z 1970 i 1980 (Warszawa: IS UW 1987); and Piotr Marciniak, "Horyzont programowy strajków 1980 r."
127. Piotr Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych -cia̧glość i zmiana," in Studia nad ruchami spolecznymi 5 (1990): 7. See also Jadwiga Staniszkis, "The Evolution of Forms of Working-Class Protest in Poland: Sociological Reflection on the Gdańsk-Szczecin Case, August 1980," Soviet Studies 28:2 (1981): 204-31; and Jolanta Kulpinska, ed., "Raport PTS - Strajki 1980," in Studia and ruchami społecznymi 5 (1990).
128. Piotr Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych -cia̧glość i zmiana," in Studia nad ruchami spolecznymi 5 (1990): 7. See also Jadwiga Staniszkis, "The Evolution of Forms of Working-Class Protest in Poland: Sociological Reflection on the Gdańsk-Szczecin Case, August 1980," Soviet Studies 28:2 (1981): 204-31; and Jolanta Kulpinska, ed., "Raport PTS - Strajki 1980," in Studia and ruchami społecznymi 5 (1990).
129. Piotr Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych -cia̧glość i zmiana," in Studia nad ruchami spolecznymi 5 (1990): 7. See also Jadwiga Staniszkis, "The Evolution of Forms of Working-Class Protest in Poland: Sociological Reflection on the Gdańsk-Szczecin Case, August 1980," Soviet Studies 28:2 (1981): 204-31; and Jolanta Kulpinska, ed., "Raport PTS - Strajki 1980," in Studia and ruchami społecznymi 5 (1990).
130. See Andrzej Anusz, Niezależne Zrzeszenie Studentó w latach 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Akces, 1991); Roman Kowalczyk, Lodzki strajk studencki (Warszawa: NOWA, 1992); and Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements. Conflicts and Change 10(1988): 173-81.
131. See Andrzej Anusz, Niezależne Zrzeszenie Studentó w latach 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Akces, 1991); Roman Kowalczyk, Lodzki strajk studencki (Warszawa: NOWA, 1992); and Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements. Conflicts and Change 10(1988): 173-81.
132. See Andrzej Anusz, Niezależne Zrzeszenie Studentó w latach 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Akces, 1991); Roman Kowalczyk, Lodzki strajk studencki (Warszawa: NOWA, 1992); and Barbara Wejnert, "The Student Movement in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements. Conflicts and Change 10(1988): 173-81.
133. See Maria Halamska, "Peasant Movements in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 10 (1988): 147-60; "Farmers' 'Solidarity' 1981-1987," Polish Agriculture 8 (1988): 18-22; and Wojciech Blasiak, "Centra i peryferie ruchów chłopskich w Polsce 1980-1981," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 2 (1989): 201-28.
134. See Maria Halamska, "Peasant Movements in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 10 (1988): 147-60; "Farmers' 'Solidarity' 1981-1987," Polish Agriculture 8 (1988): 18-22; and Wojciech Blasiak, "Centra i peryferie ruchów chłopskich w Polsce 1980-1981," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 2 (1989): 201-28.
135. See Maria Halamska, "Peasant Movements in Poland, 1980-1981," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 10 (1988): 147-60; "Farmers' 'Solidarity' 1981-1987," Polish Agriculture 8 (1988): 18-22; and Wojciech Blasiak, "Centra i peryferie ruchów chłopskich w Polsce 1980-1981," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 2 (1989): 201-28.
136. See Władysław Adamski, "Afiliacje zwiazkowe, stosunek do protestów i wartości obywatelskich jako przejaw konfliktu interesów," in Polacy '88: Dynamika konfliktu i szanse reform, Władysław Adamski et al., ed. (Warszawa: Uniwersytet Warszawski, 1989), 175.
137. The evolution of political attitudes is the best-documented aspect of Poland's developments between 1980 and 1989, thanks to systematic empirical research conducted by a team of leading Polish sociologists. See Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy '8O: Wyniki badan ankietowych (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1981); Polacy '81: Postrzeganie kryzysu i konfliktu (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1982); Polacy '84: Dynamika spałecznego konfliktu i konsensusu (Warszawa: UW, 1986); and Polacy '88. A comprehensive list of publications based on these surveys was included in Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy 90: Konflikty i zmiana (Warszawa: IFiS and ISP PAN, 1991), 186-88.
138. The evolution of political attitudes is the best-documented aspect of Poland's developments between 1980 and 1989, thanks to systematic empirical research conducted by a team of leading Polish sociologists. See Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy '8O: Wyniki badan ankietowych (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1981); Polacy '81: Postrzeganie kryzysu i konfliktu (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1982); Polacy '84: Dynamika spałecznego konfliktu i konsensusu (Warszawa: UW, 1986); and Polacy '88. A comprehensive list of publications based on these surveys was included in Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy 90: Konflikty i zmiana (Warszawa: IFiS and ISP PAN, 1991), 186-88.
139. The evolution of political attitudes is the best-documented aspect of Poland's developments between 1980 and 1989, thanks to systematic empirical research conducted by a team of leading Polish sociologists. See Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy '8O: Wyniki badan ankietowych (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1981); Polacy '81: Postrzeganie kryzysu i konfliktu (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1982); Polacy '84: Dynamika spałecznego konfliktu i konsensusu (Warszawa: UW, 1986); and Polacy '88. A comprehensive list of publications based on these surveys was included in Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy 90: Konflikty i zmiana (Warszawa: IFiS and ISP PAN, 1991), 186-88.
140. The evolution of political attitudes is the best-documented aspect of Poland's developments between 1980 and 1989, thanks to systematic empirical research conducted by a team of leading Polish sociologists. See Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy '8O: Wyniki badan ankietowych (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1981); Polacy '81: Postrzeganie kryzysu i konfliktu (Warszawa: IFiS PAN, 1982); Polacy '84: Dynamika spałecznego konfliktu i konsensusu (Warszawa: UW, 1986); and Polacy '88. A comprehensive list of publications based on these surveys was included in Władysław Adamski et al., Polacy 90: Konflikty i zmiana (Warszawa: IFiS and ISP PAN, 1991), 186-88.
141. For an analysis of the cultural dimension of the political crisis in Poland see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power. See also Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement, The Case of 'Solidarnosc' in Poland," Theory and Society 16 (1987): 401-29; Wojciech Modzelewski, "Symbolika Solidarnosci," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 5 (1989): 229-79; Sergiusz Kowalski, Krytyka solidarnościowego rozumu (Warszawa: PEN, 1990); and Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Culture as Opposition in Today's Poland," Journal of International Affairs 50:2 (1987): 367-90.
142. For an analysis of the cultural dimension of the political crisis in Poland see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power. See also Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement, The Case of 'Solidarnosc' in Poland," Theory and Society 16 (1987): 401-29; Wojciech Modzelewski, "Symbolika Solidarnosci," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 5 (1989): 229-79; Sergiusz Kowalski, Krytyka solidarnościowego rozumu (Warszawa: PEN, 1990); and Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Culture as Opposition in Today's Poland," Journal of International Affairs 50:2 (1987): 367-90.
143. For an analysis of the cultural dimension of the political crisis in Poland see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power. See also Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement, The Case of 'Solidarnosc' in Poland," Theory and Society 16 (1987): 401-29; Wojciech Modzelewski, "Symbolika Solidarnosci," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 5 (1989): 229-79; Sergiusz Kowalski, Krytyka solidarnościowego rozumu (Warszawa: PEN, 1990); and Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Culture as Opposition in Today's Poland," Journal of International Affairs 50:2 (1987): 367-90.
144. For an analysis of the cultural dimension of the political crisis in Poland see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power. See also Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement, The Case of 'Solidarnosc' in Poland," Theory and Society 16 (1987): 401-29; Wojciech Modzelewski, "Symbolika Solidarnosci," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 5 (1989): 229-79; Sergiusz Kowalski, Krytyka solidarnościowego rozumu (Warszawa: PEN, 1990); and Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Culture as Opposition in Today's Poland," Journal of International Affairs 50:2 (1987): 367-90.
145. For an analysis of the cultural dimension of the political crisis in Poland see Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power. See also Grzegorz Bakuniak and Krzysztof Nowak, "The Creation of a Collective Identity in a Social Movement, The Case of 'Solidarnosc' in Poland," Theory and Society 16 (1987): 401-29; Wojciech Modzelewski, "Symbolika Solidarnosci," Studia nad ruchami społecznymi 5 (1989): 229-79; Sergiusz Kowalski, Krytyka solidarnościowego rozumu (Warszawa: PEN, 1990); and Irena Grudzinska-Gross, "Culture as Opposition in Today's Poland," Journal of International Affairs 50:2 (1987): 367-90.
146. Institutional transformations and policies of the Polish regime are analyzed in more detail by the author's book The Stae Against Society. See also Bartłomiej Kaminski, The Collapse of State Socialism: The Case of Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Jakub Karpinski, Dziwna wojna (Paryz: Instytut Literacki, 1990); and Jan Zielonka, "Poland: The Experiment with Communist Statism," in "The Crisis Problems in Poland," Research Project "Crises in the Soviet-Type Systems," Study 12a (Koln: Index, 1987), 59-82.
147. Institutional transformations and policies of the Polish regime are analyzed in more detail by the author's book The Stae Against Society. See also Bartłomiej Kaminski, The Collapse of State Socialism: The Case of Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Jakub Karpinski, Dziwna wojna (Paryz: Instytut Literacki, 1990); and Jan Zielonka, "Poland: The Experiment with Communist Statism," in "The Crisis Problems in Poland," Research Project "Crises in the Soviet-Type Systems," Study 12a (Koln: Index, 1987), 59-82.
148. Institutional transformations and policies of the Polish regime are analyzed in more detail by the author's book The Stae Against Society. See also Bartłomiej Kaminski, The Collapse of State Socialism: The Case of Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Jakub Karpinski, Dziwna wojna (Paryz: Instytut Literacki, 1990); and Jan Zielonka, "Poland: The Experiment with Communist Statism," in "The Crisis Problems in Poland," Research Project "Crises in the Soviet-Type Systems," Study 12a (Koln: Index, 1987), 59-82.
149. Andrzej Walicki, "The Main Components of the Situation in Poland," Politics 19:1 (1984): 5.
150. Krzysztof Jasiewicz, Palacy '84 z pełtorarocznej perspektywy: Raport wstȩpny z badania "Opinie Polaków - jesień '85" (Warszawa: UW, 1986), 9.
151. Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych," 8-9. See also Paweł Smoleński and Wojciech Giełżynski, Robotnicy '88 (London: Aneks, 1989) for detailed accounts of strikes at Lenin Shipyard and Nowa Huta steel mill; and Anna Blaszkiewicz, Zbigniew W. Rykowski and Jerzy Werenstein-Żuławski, "The Solidarnosc Spring?," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 27:2 (1994): 125-34.
152. Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych," 8-9. See also Paweł Smoleński and Wojciech Giełżynski, Robotnicy '88 (London: Aneks, 1989) for detailed accounts of strikes at Lenin Shipyard and Nowa Huta steel mill; and Anna Blaszkiewicz, Zbigniew W. Rykowski and Jerzy Werenstein-Żuławski, "The Solidarnosc Spring?," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 27:2 (1994): 125-34.
153. Marciniak, "Strajki polskie lat osiemdziesia̧tych," 8-9. See also Paweł Smoleński and Wojciech Giełżynski, Robotnicy '88 (London: Aneks, 1989) for detailed accounts of strikes at Lenin Shipyard and Nowa Huta steel mill; and Anna Blaszkiewicz, Zbigniew W. Rykowski and Jerzy Werenstein-Żuławski, "The Solidarnosc Spring?," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 27:2 (1994): 125-34.
154. See Document nr. 39, "Informacja o konfliktach spolecznych i akcjach protestacyjnych w zakladach pracy i srodowiskach zawodowych," in Stanislaw Perzkowski, ed., Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego i Sekretariatu KC. Ostatni rok władzy 1988-1989 (London: Aneks, 1994), 303-4. See also Document nr. 3, "Kalendarium akcji strajkowych w okresie 15-30 sierpnia 1988 r.," in Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego, 15-31; and Marek Pernal and Jan Skórzyński, Kalendarium. Solidarność 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1990).
155. See Document nr. 39, "Informacja o konfliktach spolecznych i akcjach protestacyjnych w zakladach pracy i srodowiskach zawodowych," in Stanislaw Perzkowski, ed., Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego i Sekretariatu KC. Ostatni rok władzy 1988-1989 (London: Aneks, 1994), 303-4. See also Document nr. 3, "Kalendarium akcji strajkowych w okresie 15-30 sierpnia 1988 r.," in Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego, 15-31; and Marek Pernal and Jan Skórzyński, Kalendarium. Solidarność 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1990).
156. See Document nr. 39, "Informacja o konfliktach spolecznych i akcjach protestacyjnych w zakladach pracy i srodowiskach zawodowych," in Stanislaw Perzkowski, ed., Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego i Sekretariatu KC. Ostatni rok władzy 1988-1989 (London: Aneks, 1994), 303-4. See also Document nr. 3, "Kalendarium akcji strajkowych w okresie 15-30 sierpnia 1988 r.," in Tajne dokumenty Biura Politycznego, 15-31; and Marek Pernal and Jan Skórzyński, Kalendarium. Solidarność 1980-1989 (Warszawa: Omnipress, 1990).
157. CBOS, "Życie codzienne Polaków w 1989 r." (Warszawa, grudzień 1989).
158. Data from the project "Strategies of Collective Protest in Democratizing Societies: Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the former East Germany, 1989-1994," directed by Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik.
159. For the preliminary results of a four-country study on protest activities, see Grzegorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, "Contentious Politics in New Democracies: Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the Former East Germany," Program on Eastern and Central Europe Working Paper Series, Center for European Studies, Harvard University, no. 41, 1997.