Mothers and Workers: The Politics of the Maternal Body in Early Twentieth-Century Japan

Australian Feminist Studies

Volumn 12, Issue 25, 1997, Pages 43-58

  Mackie, Vera ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031525902     PISSN: 08164649     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08164649.1997.9994840     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Discussed in more detail in Vera Mackie, Creating Socialist Women in Japan, Gender, Labour and Activism, 1900-1937 (Cambridge University Press) forthcoming, chapter 1.
2. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
3. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
4. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
5. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
6. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
7. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
8. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
9. The Bluestocking Society (Seitôsha) was a liberal feminist organisation which was formed in support of the women's arts journal Bluestocking (Seitô) which appeared between 1911 and 1916. Ide Fumiko, Seitô no Onnatachi (Kaien Shobô) Tokyo, 1975; Horiba Kiyoko, Seitô no Jidai: (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1988; Nancy Andrew, 'The Seitôsha - An Early Japanese Women's Organisation 1911-1916' in A.M. Craig (ed.), Papers on Japan (Harvard University Press) Cambridge, MA, 1972; Noriko Mizuta Lippit, 'Seitô and the Literary Roots of Japanese Feminism', International Journal of Women's Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 155-63; Pauline Reich and Atsuko Fukuda, 'Japan's Literary Feminists - The Seitô Group', Signs, vol. 2, no. 1, 1976; Sharon H. Nolte, Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960 (University of California) Berkeley, 1987, pp. 97-105; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Meiji Japan (Stanford University Press) Stanford, 1983, chapter 8; Vera Mackie, 'Feminist Politics in Japan', New Left Review, no. 167, January-February 1988, pp. 56-7.
10. Cf. Maureen Molloy, 'Citizenship, Property and Bodies: Discourses on Gender and the Inter-War Labour Government in New Zealand', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, pp. 294-5: Women, on the other hand, have been defined by their bodies which in turn have been defined as ab-normal. Attention to the body permits us to discover the ways in which the female body has been an instrument through which women have been constructed at the same time as subjects of the welfare state and as not-quite-citizens.
11. In Japan, women belonged to one of the categories of people who were prohibited from holding, attending, or speaking at political meetings, in legislation which was in force from 1890 to 1922. They were also excluded from the franchise, even after property qualifications were removed for male voters in 1925.
12. Fukuda Hideko, Warawa no Hanseigai (Iwanami Bunko) Tokyo, 1958, p. 52.
13. Yosano Akiko, Tangled Hair: Selected Tanka from Midaregami, trans. Sanford Goldstein and Seishi Shinoda (1901) (Tuttle) Tokyo, 1987.
14. Yosano, Midaregami, Tanka no. 25, unpaginated.
15. Orii Miyako (ed.), Shiryô: Sei to Ai o Meguru Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1991.
16. Cf. E. Ann Kaplan, Motherhood and Representation: The Mother in Popular Culture and Melodrama (Routledge) London, 1992; Kaplan analyses, the mother within three distinct (but ultimately related) representational spheres, those of the historical, the psychoanalytic and the fictional. These roughly correspond to three main kinds of discursive mothers, namely, first, the mother in her socially constructed, institutional role (the mother that girls are socialized to become, and that historical or real mothers strive to embody); second, the mother in the unconscious - the mother through whom the subject is constituted - who is first fully articulated by Freud at the turn of the century as the split-mother: this mother is later theorized more fully by (largely female) analysts; and third, the mother in fictional representations who combines the institutionally positioned mother, and the unconscious mother. The fourth mother, who may be called the 'real life' mother (the bodily mother) or the historical figure who interacts daily with her child (and who can be studied by social scientists) lies outside my discursive scope, because I believe she is ultimately not-representable as such ... (pp. 6-7)
17. Fukuda, Warawa no Hanseigai, pp. 74-8.
18. Fukuda, Warawa no Hanseigai, p. 74. Translations are my own unless stated otherwise.
19. Fukuda's classical education is revealed, as she makes references to the Chinese dynastic histories, in particular the mythical Chinese Emperor Yu, in recounting these dreams.
20. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogatari', Tokyo Niroku Shinbun, 14 March 1909-19 March 1909; reprinted in Hitosumi Yori, and reproduced in Kano Masanao and Kôuchi Nobuko (eds), Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, (Iwanami Bunko) Tokyo, pp. 32-41. Yosano's writings on the experience of motherhood are discussed by Suzuki Yûko, Joseishi o Hiraku 1: Haha to Onna (Miraisha) Tokyo, 1989, pp. 49-67; Tachi Kaoru, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism - Bosei no Kenri kara Ikujiken e' in Hara Hiroko and Tachi Kaoru (eds), Bosei kara Jisedai Ikuseiryoku e: Umisodateru Shakai no Tame ni (Shinyôsha) Tokyo, 1991, pp. 15-28. Yosano would go through eleven pregnancies, twice delivering twins. One child was stillborn, while another survived only a few days. Yosano was thus responsible for raising eleven children, and her writing often provided the major source of income for herself, her husband Yosano Tekkan and the children.
21. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogatari', Tokyo Niroku Shinbun, 14 March 1909-19 March 1909; reprinted in Hitosumi Yori, and reproduced in Kano Masanao and Kôuchi Nobuko (eds), Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, (Iwanami Bunko) Tokyo, pp. 32-41. Yosano's writings on the experience of motherhood are discussed by Suzuki Yûko, Joseishi o Hiraku 1: Haha to Onna (Miraisha) Tokyo, 1989, pp. 49-67; Tachi Kaoru, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism - Bosei no Kenri kara Ikujiken e' in Hara Hiroko and Tachi Kaoru (eds), Bosei kara Jisedai Ikuseiryoku e: Umisodateru Shakai no Tame ni (Shinyôsha) Tokyo, 1991, pp. 15-28. Yosano would go through eleven pregnancies, twice delivering twins. One child was stillborn, while another survived only a few days. Yosano was thus responsible for raising eleven children, and her writing often provided the major source of income for herself, her husband Yosano Tekkan and the children.
22. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogatari', Tokyo Niroku Shinbun, 14 March 1909-19 March 1909; reprinted in Hitosumi Yori, and reproduced in Kano Masanao and Kôuchi Nobuko (eds), Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, (Iwanami Bunko) Tokyo, pp. 32-41. Yosano's writings on the experience of motherhood are discussed by Suzuki Yûko, Joseishi o Hiraku 1: Haha to Onna (Miraisha) Tokyo, 1989, pp. 49-67; Tachi Kaoru, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism - Bosei no Kenri kara Ikujiken e' in Hara Hiroko and Tachi Kaoru (eds), Bosei kara Jisedai Ikuseiryoku e: Umisodateru Shakai no Tame ni (Shinyôsha) Tokyo, 1991, pp. 15-28. Yosano would go through eleven pregnancies, twice delivering twins. One child was stillborn, while another survived only a few days. Yosano was thus responsible for raising eleven children, and her writing often provided the major source of income for herself, her husband Yosano Tekkan and the children.
23. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogatari', Tokyo Niroku Shinbun, 14 March 1909-19 March 1909; reprinted in Hitosumi Yori, and reproduced in Kano Masanao and Kôuchi Nobuko (eds), Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, (Iwanami Bunko) Tokyo, pp. 32-41. Yosano's writings on the experience of motherhood are discussed by Suzuki Yûko, Joseishi o Hiraku 1: Haha to Onna (Miraisha) Tokyo, 1989, pp. 49-67; Tachi Kaoru, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism - Bosei no Kenri kara Ikujiken e' in Hara Hiroko and Tachi Kaoru (eds), Bosei kara Jisedai Ikuseiryoku e: Umisodateru Shakai no Tame ni (Shinyôsha) Tokyo, 1991, pp. 15-28. Yosano would go through eleven pregnancies, twice delivering twins. One child was stillborn, while another survived only a few days. Yosano was thus responsible for raising eleven children, and her writing often provided the major source of income for herself, her husband Yosano Tekkan and the children.
24. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogatari', cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 54-5.
25. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogari', in Hitosumi yori, 19 July, reprinted in Teihon Yosano Akiko Zenshû, Tokyo: Kôdansha, 1989-1991, vol. 14, pp. 3-12; translation in Laurel Rasplica Rodd, 'Yosano Akiko and the Taishô Debate Over the "New Woman'" in Gail Lee Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women: 1600-1945 (University of California) Berkeley, 1991, p. 180.
26. Yosano Akiko, 'Ubuya Monogari', in Hitosumi yori, 19 July, reprinted in Teihon Yosano Akiko Zenshû, Tokyo: Kôdansha, 1989-1991, vol. 14, pp. 3-12; translation in Laurel Rasplica Rodd, 'Yosano Akiko and the Taishô Debate Over the "New Woman'" in Gail Lee Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women: 1600-1945 (University of California) Berkeley, 1991, p. 180.
27. Yosano Akiko, 'Daiichi no Chintsû', translated as 'Labour Pains' in Kenneth Rexroth and Ikuko Atsumi (eds), Women Poets of Japan (New Directions) New York, 1977, p. 87. A similar sense of loneliness is expressed in Goto Miyoko's poem: 'I listen to the pulse of a life/different from mine/in my womb,/and with it I can hear my own lonely heart' in Rexroth and Atsumi (eds), Women Poets of Japan, p. 71.
28. Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Genshi Josei wa Taiyô de atta', Seitô, vol. 1, no. 1, 1911, p. 38.
29. Susan Stanford Friedman, 'Creativity and the Childbirth Metaphor' in Robyn R. Warhol and Diane Price Herndl (eds), Feminisms: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism (Rutgers University Press) New Brunswick, pp. 371-96, cited in Anne Cranny-Francis, The Body in the Text (Melbourne University Press) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 33-43.
30. Susan Stanford Friedman, 'Creativity and the Childbirth Metaphor' in Robyn R. Warhol and Diane Price Herndl (eds), Feminisms: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism (Rutgers University Press) New Brunswick, pp. 371-96, cited in Anne Cranny-Francis, The Body in the Text (Melbourne University Press) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 33-43.
31. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', p. 10.
32. These comments are made in a contribution to a debate on contraception and abortion, which was being carried out in the pages of Bluestocking. In this article Hiratsuka traces the transformation of her consciousness, as she faces the possibility of pregnancy and motherhood. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', Seitô, vol. 5, no. 8, September 1915, reprinted in Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko (eds), Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû (Iwanami Bunko) 1987, pp. 58-77. See also Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei no Shuchô ni tsuite Yosano Akiko Shi ni atau', Bunshô Sekai, May 1916, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 78-93, where Hiratsuka responds to Yosano Akiko's critique of the writings of Ellen Key. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henchô o haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, in Kano and Kôuchi, Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, pp. 136-47.
33. These comments are made in a contribution to a debate on contraception and abortion, which was being carried out in the pages of Bluestocking. In this article Hiratsuka traces the transformation of her consciousness, as she faces the possibility of pregnancy and motherhood. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', Seitô, vol. 5, no. 8, September 1915, reprinted in Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko (eds), Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû (Iwanami Bunko) 1987, pp. 58-77. See also Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei no Shuchô ni tsuite Yosano Akiko Shi ni atau', Bunshô Sekai, May 1916, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 78-93, where Hiratsuka responds to Yosano Akiko's critique of the writings of Ellen Key. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henchô o haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, in Kano and Kôuchi, Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, pp. 136-47.
34. These comments are made in a contribution to a debate on contraception and abortion, which was being carried out in the pages of Bluestocking. In this article Hiratsuka traces the transformation of her consciousness, as she faces the possibility of pregnancy and motherhood. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', Seitô, vol. 5, no. 8, September 1915, reprinted in Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko (eds), Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû (Iwanami Bunko) 1987, pp. 58-77. See also Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei no Shuchô ni tsuite Yosano Akiko Shi ni atau', Bunshô Sekai, May 1916, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 78-93, where Hiratsuka responds to Yosano Akiko's critique of the writings of Ellen Key. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henchô o haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, in Kano and Kôuchi, Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, pp. 136-47.
35. These comments are made in a contribution to a debate on contraception and abortion, which was being carried out in the pages of Bluestocking. In this article Hiratsuka traces the transformation of her consciousness, as she faces the possibility of pregnancy and motherhood. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', Seitô, vol. 5, no. 8, September 1915, reprinted in Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko (eds), Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû (Iwanami Bunko) 1987, pp. 58-77. See also Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei no Shuchô ni tsuite Yosano Akiko Shi ni atau', Bunshô Sekai, May 1916, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 78-93, where Hiratsuka responds to Yosano Akiko's critique of the writings of Ellen Key. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henchô o haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, in Kano and Kôuchi, Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, pp. 136-47.
36. These comments are made in a contribution to a debate on contraception and abortion, which was being carried out in the pages of Bluestocking. In this article Hiratsuka traces the transformation of her consciousness, as she faces the possibility of pregnancy and motherhood. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', Seitô, vol. 5, no. 8, September 1915, reprinted in Kobayashi Tomie and Yoneda Sayoko (eds), Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû (Iwanami Bunko) 1987, pp. 58-77. See also Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei no Shuchô ni tsuite Yosano Akiko Shi ni atau', Bunshô Sekai, May 1916, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 78-93, where Hiratsuka responds to Yosano Akiko's critique of the writings of Ellen Key. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henchô o haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, in Kano and Kôuchi, Yosano Akiko Hyôronshû, pp. 136-47.
37. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', p. 16. See also Hiratsuka's reflections on her first year of motherhood in Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Haha to shite no ichinenkan', Fujin Kôron, May 1917, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 94-105.
38. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', p. 16. See also Hiratsuka's reflections on her first year of motherhood in Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Haha to shite no ichinenkan', Fujin Kôron, May 1917, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 94-105.
39. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', p. 16. See also Hiratsuka's reflections on her first year of motherhood in Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Haha to shite no ichinenkan', Fujin Kôron, May 1917, in Kobayashi and Yoneda, Hiratsuka Raichô Hyôronshû, pp. 94-105.
40. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', pp. 17-18.
41. Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism', pp. 15-25.
42. Hiratsuka Raichô, '"Kojin" to shite no seikatsu to "Sei" to shite no seikatsu to no aida no sôtô ni tsuite', p. 73.
43. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
44. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
45. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
46. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
47. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
48. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
49. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
50. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
51. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
52. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
53. This debate is surveyed in: Maruoka Hideko, Fujin Shisô Keisei Shi Nôto (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1975, vol. 1, pp. 105-27; Kôuchi Nobuko, '"Bosei Hogo Ronsô" no Rekishiteki Igi: "Ronsô" Kara "Undô e no Tsunagari'", Rekishi Hyôron, no. 195, November 1966, pp. 28-41; Kôuchi Nobuko, 'Kaidai' in Kôuchi Nobuko (ed.), Shiryô: Basei Hogo Ronsô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 289-320; Sakurai Kinue, Basei Hogo Undôshi (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1987, pp. 48-52; Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 49-67; Tachi, 'Kindai Nihon no Bosei to Feminism'; Kanatani Chieko, 'Ima Bosei Hogo Ronsô o Toinaoshi: Yosano Akiko Kara Manabu Mono', Onna ta Otoko no Joseiron, no. 7, 1991; pp. 28-45; Diana Bethel, 'Visions of a Humane Society: Feminist Thought in Taishô Japan', Feminist International, no. 2, 1980; Vera Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism in Japan, 1900-1937', Hecate, vol. 14, no. 2, 1988, pp. 37-8; Barbara Molony, 'Equality versus Difference: The Japanese Debate Over Motherhood Protection, 1915-1950' in Janet Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working (Routledge) London, 1993, pp. 122-9; Vera Mackie, 'Engaging with the State: Socialist Women in Imperial Japan' in Vera Mackie (ed.), Feminism and the State in Modern Japan (Japanese Studies Centre) Melbourne, 1995, pp. 63-4.
54. Fukushima Shirô, 'Bosei o hogo seyo', Fujo Shinbun, 20 April 1917; 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 27 April 1917; reprinted in Fukushima Shirô, Fujinkai Sanjûgonen (1935) (Fuji Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 161-5.
55. Fukushima Shirô, 'Bosei o hogo seyo', Fujo Shinbun, 20 April 1917; 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 27 April 1917; reprinted in Fukushima Shirô, Fujinkai Sanjûgonen (1935) (Fuji Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 161-5.
56. Fukushima Shirô, 'Bosei o hogo seyo', Fujo Shinbun, 20 April 1917; 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 27 April 1917; reprinted in Fukushima Shirô, Fujinkai Sanjûgonen (1935) (Fuji Shuppan) Tokyo, 1984, pp. 161-5.
57. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo', p. 161.
58. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
59. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
60. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
61. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
62. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
63. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
64. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
65. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
66. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
67. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
68. Fukushima, 'Bosei o hogo seyo (futatabi)', pp. 162-3. The theme would be continued in several subsequent editorials. See 'Bosei hogo no hoken', Fujo Shinbun, 28 June 1918, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 165-7; 'Boseiai no kakuchô', Fujo Shinbun, 10 January 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjugônen, pp. 167-9; 'Bosei Hogo no Kyûyô", Fujo Shinbun, 7 February 1926, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 171-2; 'Joken setsu to Boseihogo setsu', Fujo Shinbun, 26 April 1931, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 175-6; 'Boseiai no kakuchô (futatabi)', Fujo Shinbun, 16 April 1933, reprinted in Fujinkai Sanjûgonen, pp. 169-70. Later editorials refer to the creation of a committee to lobby for the creation of a Mother and Child Assistance Act.
69. Yosano Akiko, 'Shieiroku', Fujin Kôron, vol. 3, no. 3, March 1918, excerpted in Kôuchi, Shiryô: Bosei Hogo Ronsô, pp. 85-6; also cited in Rodd, 'Yosano Akiko and the Taishô Debate over the "New Woman'", p. 192.
70. Yosano Akiko, 'Shieiroku', Fujin Kôron, vol. 3, no. 3, March 1918, excerpted in Kôuchi, Shiryô: Bosei Hogo Ronsô, pp. 85-6; also cited in Rodd, 'Yosano Akiko and the Taishô Debate over the "New Woman'", p. 192.
71. Yosano Akiko, 'Shieiroku', Fujin Kôron, vol. 3, no. 3, March 1918, excerpted in Kôuchi, Shiryô: Bosei Hogo Ronsô, pp. 85-6; also cited in Rodd, 'Yosano Akiko and the Taishô Debate over the "New Woman'", p. 192.
72. Yosano Akiko, 'Nebatsuchi Jizô', Taiyô, vol. 24, March-August 1918, excerpts in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, pp. 233-9.
73. Yosano Akiko, 'Nebatsuchi Jizô', Taiyô, vol. 24, March-August 1918, excerpts in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, pp. 233-9.
74. Cf. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s-1950s (Routledge) London, 1991; Gender and History (Special Issue on Motherhood, Race and the State in the Twentieth Century), vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992.
75. Cf. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s-1950s (Routledge) London, 1991; Gender and History (Special Issue on Motherhood, Race and the State in the Twentieth Century), vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992.
76. Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei hogo no shuchô wa irai shugi ka - Yosano, Kaetsu Nishi e', Fujin Kôran, vol. 3, no. 5, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, p. 231.
77. Hiratsuka Raichô, 'Bosei hogo no shuchô wa irai shugi ka - Yosano, Kaetsu Nishi e', Fujin Kôran, vol. 3, no. 5, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, p. 231.
78. Hiratsuka, 'Bosei hogo no shuchô wa irai shugi ni arazu', p. 231.
79. Hiratsuka, 'Bosei Hogo no Shuchô wa Irai shugi ni arazu', p. 232.
80. Cf. Caroline Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour! The State, the Labour Movement and Working-Class Mothers, 1900-1918' in Rosalind Brunt and Caroline Rowan (eds), Feminism, Culture and Politics (Lawrence & Wishart) 1982, p. 82: 'If childrearing and housewifery were civic duties, they could demand civic rights in return'.
81. Yosano Akiko, 'Nebatsuchi Jizô', Taiyô, vol. 24, no. 7, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, p. 233-9.
82. Yosano Akiko, 'Nebatsuchi Jizô', Taiyô, vol. 24, no. 7, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, p. 233-9.
83. Yosano, 'Nebatsuchi Jizô', p. 234.
84. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henjû o Haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 53-4.
85. Yosano Akiko, 'Bosei Henjû o Haisu', Taiyô, February 1916, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, pp. 53-4.
86. Yosano Akiko, 'Hiratsuka, Yamakawa, Yamada Sanjoshi ni Kotau', Taiyô, November 1918, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, p. 64. For further discussion of the deployment of images of motherhood for nationalist purposes in the 1930s, see Yoshiko Miyake, 'Doubling Expectations: Motherhood and Women's Factory Work in the 1930s and 1940s' in Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women, pp. 267-95; Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism'; Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 6.
87. Yosano Akiko, 'Hiratsuka, Yamakawa, Yamada Sanjoshi ni Kotau', Taiyô, November 1918, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, p. 64. For further discussion of the deployment of images of motherhood for nationalist purposes in the 1930s, see Yoshiko Miyake, 'Doubling Expectations: Motherhood and Women's Factory Work in the 1930s and 1940s' in Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women, pp. 267-95; Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism'; Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 6.
88. Yosano Akiko, 'Hiratsuka, Yamakawa, Yamada Sanjoshi ni Kotau', Taiyô, November 1918, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, p. 64. For further discussion of the deployment of images of motherhood for nationalist purposes in the 1930s, see Yoshiko Miyake, 'Doubling Expectations: Motherhood and Women's Factory Work in the 1930s and 1940s' in Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women, pp. 267-95; Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism'; Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 6.
89. Yosano Akiko, 'Hiratsuka, Yamakawa, Yamada Sanjoshi ni Kotau', Taiyô, November 1918, cited in Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, p. 64. For further discussion of the deployment of images of motherhood for nationalist purposes in the 1930s, see Yoshiko Miyake, 'Doubling Expectations: Motherhood and Women's Factory Work in the 1930s and 1940s' in Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women, pp. 267-95; Mackie, 'Motherhood and Pacifism'; Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 6.
90. For discussion of Yamada's contribution to the debate, see Yamazaki Tomoko, Ameyuki-san no Uta: Yamada Waka-no Sûki naru Shôgai, Tokyo: Bungei Shunjû, 1981, pp. 213-15; Yamazaki Tomoko, The Story of Yamada Waka: From Prostitute to Feminist Pioneer (Kodansha) Tokyo, 1985, pp. 129-30.
91. For discussion of Yamada's contribution to the debate, see Yamazaki Tomoko, Ameyuki-san no Uta: Yamada Waka-no Sûki naru Shôgai, Tokyo: Bungei Shunjû, 1981, pp. 213-15; Yamazaki Tomoko, The Story of Yamada Waka: From Prostitute to Feminist Pioneer (Kodansha) Tokyo, 1985, pp. 129-30.
92. Yamada Waka, 'Kongo no Fujin Mondai o Teishôsu', original publication details unclear, reproduced in Kôuchi, Shiryô: Bosei Hogo Ronsô, pp. 91-5.
93. See also Yamada Waka, 'Fujin o Madowasu Fujinron', Bunka Undô, no. 100, October-November 1918,
94. in Kôuchi, Shiryô: Bosei Hogo Ronsô, pp. 168-76.
95. Yamada Waka, 'Kongo no Fujin Mondai o Teishôsu', pp. 91-5.
96. Yamakawa Kikue, 'Yosano, Hiratsuka Ryôshi no ronsô', Fujin Kôran, vol. 3, no. 7, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, pp. 239-48.
97. Yamakawa Kikue, 'Yosano, Hiratsuka Ryôshi no ronsô', Fujin Kôran, vol. 3, no. 7, 1918, in Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 8, pp. 239-48.
98. For discussion of Ellen Key's influence on Japanese feminism, see Kaneko Sachiko, 'Taishôki ni okeru seiyô josei kaihô ron juyô no hôhô - Ellen Key Ren'ai to kekkon o tegakari ni', Shakai Kagaku Jaanaru, no. 24, October 1985.
99. Yamakawa, 'Yosano, Hiratsuka Ryôshi no ronsô', p. 241.
100. I am using the words 'maternalist/maternalism' to refer to a strand of feminism which emphasises women's reproductive capacity and the social importance of the the role of mother. In other contexts 'maternalist' has been used to describe a protective attitude displayed by white feminists with respect to women of colour, particularly in colonial situations. See Margaret Jolly in Sneja Gunew and Anna Yeatman (eds), Feminism and the Politics of Difference (Allen & Unwin) Sydney, 1993. This is also separate from the discussion of two different kinds of welfare states: 'maternalist' and 'paternalist'. Marilyn Lake, 'Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation -
101. I am using the words 'maternalist/maternalism' to refer to a strand of feminism which emphasises women's reproductive capacity and the social importance of the the role of mother. In other contexts 'maternalist' has been used to describe a protective attitude displayed by white feminists with respect to women of colour, particularly in colonial situations. See Margaret Jolly in Sneja Gunew and Anna Yeatman (eds), Feminism and the Politics of Difference (Allen & Unwin) Sydney, 1993. This is also separate from the discussion of two different kinds of welfare states: 'maternalist' and 'paternalist'. Marilyn Lake, 'Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation - Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, p. 305; Theda Skocpol and Gretchen Ritter, 'Gender and the Origins of Modern Social Policies in Britain and the United States', Studies in American Political Development, no. 5, Spring 1990.
102. I am using the words 'maternalist/maternalism' to refer to a strand of feminism which emphasises women's reproductive capacity and the social importance of the the role of mother. In other contexts 'maternalist' has been used to describe a protective attitude displayed by white feminists with respect to women of colour, particularly in colonial situations. See Margaret Jolly in Sneja Gunew and Anna Yeatman (eds), Feminism and the Politics of Difference (Allen & Unwin) Sydney, 1993. This is also separate from the discussion of two different kinds of welfare states: 'maternalist' and 'paternalist'. Marilyn Lake, 'Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation - Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, p. 305; Theda Skocpol and Gretchen Ritter, 'Gender and the Origins of Modern Social Policies in Britain and the United States', Studies in American Political Development, no. 5, Spring 1990.
103. Yamakawa, 'Yosano, Hiratsuka Ryôshi no ronsô', p. 245.
104. Cf. Carol Lee Bacchi, Same Difference (Allen & Unwin) Sydney, 1991.
105. Yamakawa, 'Yosano, Hiratsuka Ryôshi no ronsô'.
106. Yamada Waka, 'Fujin no Kaihô to wa', Fujin to Shinshakai, no. 3, May 1920, p. 10.
107. Similar issues were discussed in other national contexts. See Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour!'; Janet Evans, 'The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Women's Question: The Case of the 1936 Decree "In Defence of Mother and Child'", Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16, 1981, pp. 757-75; Bock and Thane, Maternity and Gender Policies; Lake, 'Mission Impossible'.
108. Similar issues were discussed in other national contexts. See Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour!'; Janet Evans, 'The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Women's Question: The Case of the 1936 Decree "In Defence of Mother and Child'", Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16, 1981, pp. 757-75; Bock and Thane, Maternity and Gender Policies; Lake, 'Mission Impossible'.
109. Similar issues were discussed in other national contexts. See Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour!'; Janet Evans, 'The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Women's Question: The Case of the 1936 Decree "In Defence of Mother and Child'", Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16, 1981, pp. 757-75; Bock and Thane, Maternity and Gender Policies; Lake, 'Mission Impossible'.
110. Similar issues were discussed in other national contexts. See Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour!'; Janet Evans, 'The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Women's Question: The Case of the 1936 Decree "In Defence of Mother and Child'", Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16, 1981, pp. 757-75; Bock and Thane, Maternity and Gender Policies; Lake, 'Mission Impossible'.
111. Cf. Rowan, 'Mothers. Vote Labour!': If one regards the family as a key site of patriarchal power relations, albeit as a result of historical development, rather than biological inevitablity, then state intervention in the family can be seen as the point of intersection of class and gender struggle and the point at which tensions and contradictions between the two are likely to be most evident. (p. 60)
112. Molony, 'Equality versus Difference'.
113. This is discussed in more detail in Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 4.
114. Suzuki, Joseishi o Hiraku 1, p. 72.
115. Mackie, Creating Socialist Women, chapter 6.
116. The Factory Act, for example, was promulgated in 1911, the year that Bluestocking was established.
117. Cf. Griselda Pollock's discussion of European representations of working women, which highlight the problem created by 'the conjunction of labour and sexuality figured by the bodies of women', in a system of representation where 'labour and women are antagonistic terms'. Griselda Pollock, 'Feminism/Foucault - Surveillance/Sexuality' in Norman Bryson, Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds), Visual Culture: Images and Interpretations (Wesleyan University Press) Hanover and London, 1994, p. 17.
118. Nôshômushô Kankôkai, Shokkô Jijô (Meicho Kankôkai) Tokyo, 1967; Yokoyama Gennosuke, Nihon no Kasô Shakai (1899) (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1949; Hane, Peasants, Rebels and Outcastes, pp. 181-4.
119. Nôshômushô Kankôkai, Shokkô Jijô (Meicho Kankôkai) Tokyo, 1967; Yokoyama Gennosuke, Nihon no Kasô Shakai (1899) (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1949; Hane, Peasants, Rebels and Outcastes, pp. 181-4.
120. Nôshômushô Kankôkai, Shokkô Jijô (Meicho Kankôkai) Tokyo, 1967; Yokoyama Gennosuke, Nihon no Kasô Shakai (1899) (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1949; Hane, Peasants, Rebels and Outcastes, pp. 181-4.
121. The development of factory legislation is canvassed in more detail in Vera Mackie, 'Industrialization and the Quality of Working Life: Factory Legislation in Japan, 1880-1930', paper presented at the Conference on Industrialization and the Quality of Life, History and Economic History, University of Melbourne, October 1994; Sheldon Garon, The State and Labour in Modern Japan (University of California) Berkeley, 1988.
122. The development of factory legislation is canvassed in more detail in Vera Mackie, 'Industrialization and the Quality of Working Life: Factory Legislation in Japan, 1880-1930', paper presented at the Conference on Industrialization and the Quality of Life, History and Economic History, University of Melbourne, October 1994; Sheldon Garon, The State and Labour in Modern Japan (University of California) Berkeley, 1988.
123. Ayusawa, A History of Labor in Modern Japan, p, 107.
124. Garon, State and Labour in Modern Japan, p. 28; Oka, Kôjôhô Ron (Yûhikaku) Tokyo, 1917 (revised edition), p. 209; Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories, Tuberculosis and the Quality of Life in Industrializing Japan' in Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working, pp. 69-97.
125. Garon, State and Labour in Modern Japan, p. 28; Oka, Kôjôhô Ron (Yûhikaku) Tokyo, 1917 (revised edition), p. 209; Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories, Tuberculosis and the Quality of Life in Industrializing Japan' in Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working, pp. 69-97.
126. Garon, State and Labour in Modern Japan, p. 28; Oka, Kôjôhô Ron (Yûhikaku) Tokyo, 1917 (revised edition), p. 209; Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories, Tuberculosis and the Quality of Life in Industrializing Japan' in Hunter (ed.), Japanese Women Working, pp. 69-97.
127. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô no Eiseigakuteki Kansatsu', Kokka Igakukai Zasshi, no. 322, 1913, reproduced in Akamatsu Ryôko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1977, vol. 3, p. 244.
128. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô no Eiseigakuteki Kansatsu', Kokka Igakukai Zasshi, no. 322, 1913, reproduced in Akamatsu Ryôko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1977, vol. 3, p. 244.
129. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô to kekkaku', Kokka Igakukai Zasshi, no. 322, 1913, cited in Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories', pp. 77-8; Tsurumi, 'Female Textile Workers', p. 9.
130. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô to kekkaku', Kokka Igakukai Zasshi, no. 322, 1913, cited in Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories', pp. 77-8; Tsurumi, 'Female Textile Workers', p. 9.
131. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô to kekkaku', Kokka Igakukai Zasshi, no. 322, 1913, cited in Janet Hunter, 'Textile Factories', pp. 77-8; Tsurumi, 'Female Textile Workers', p. 9.
132. Ishihara Osamu, 'Jokô to Kekkaku', cited in Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 36-9.
133. Cited in Miyake Yoshiko, 'Rekishi no naka no jendaa: Meiji Shakaishugisha no Gensetsu ni arawareta Josei, Josei Rôdôsha' in Hara Hiroko et al. (eds), Jendaa: Library Sokan Shakaigaku 2 (Shinseisha) Tokyo, 1994, p. 153.
134. This song has been attributed to Takatsu Tayoko and her husband Takatsu Seidô. Kondô Magara, Watashi no Kaisô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1981, vol. 2, pp. 39-40. There is, however, an earlier citation of the song in Kinoshita Naoe's novel Ryôjin no Jihaku, which was serialised in the Mainichi Shinbun between 1904 and 1906. The song also appeared in a collection of socialist poetry in 1906. See Matsumoto Katsuhira, Nihon Shakai Shugi Engeki Shi: Meiji Taishô Hen (Chikuma Shobô) Tokyo, 1975, pp. 156-7.
135. This song has been attributed to Takatsu Tayoko and her husband Takatsu Seidô. Kondô Magara, Watashi no Kaisô (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1981, vol. 2, pp. 39-40. There is, however, an earlier citation of the song in Kinoshita Naoe's novel Ryôjin no Jihaku, which was serialised in the Mainichi Shinbun between 1904 and 1906. The song also appeared in a collection of socialist poetry in 1906. See Matsumoto Katsuhira, Nihon Shakai Shugi Engeki Shi: Meiji Taishô Hen (Chikuma Shobô) Tokyo, 1975, pp. 156-7.
136. Tajima Hide, 'Hikari ni Mukaite', p. 4.
137. Kojima, Hataraku Josei, pp. 54-5.
138. Ayusawa, A History of Labor in Modern Japan, p. 111.
139. Kanatani, 'Rôdôsha hogohô henkô shi ni miru bosei hogo', pp. 47-8; Large, Organized Workers and Socialist Politics in Interwar Japan (Cambridge University Press) Cambridge, 1981, p. 54;
140. Kanatani, 'Rôdôsha hogohô henkô shi ni miru bosei hogo', pp. 47-8; Large, Organized Workers and Socialist Politics in Interwar Japan (Cambridge University Press) Cambridge, 1981, p. 54;
141. Hane, Peasants, Rebels and Outcasts, p. 183. The 1923 amendment reduced the maximum working time to 11 hours, raised the minimum age of workers from 12 to 15, and extended the jurisdiction of the law to cover all factories employing more than 10 workers.
142. Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 41-2.
143. Oka Minoru, Kôjôhô Ron, p. 210.
144. Kanatani Chieko, 'Rôdôsha hogohô henkô shi ni miru bosei hogo', Agora, no. 89, 10 August 1984, pp. 39-66; Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, pp. 269-77. The 1926 amendment increased maternity leave to four weeks before parturition, and six weeks after; although a woman could return to work after four weeks with a doctor's approval, Sakurai, Boseihogo Undôshi, p. 41.
145. Kanatani Chieko, 'Rôdôsha hogohô henkô shi ni miru bosei hogo', Agora, no. 89, 10 August 1984, pp. 39-66; Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, pp. 269-77. The 1926 amendment increased maternity leave to four weeks before parturition, and six weeks after; although a woman could return to work after four weeks with a doctor's approval, Sakurai, Boseihogo Undôshi, p. 41.
146. Kanatani Chieko, 'Rôdôsha hogohô henkô shi ni miru bosei hogo', Agora, no. 89, 10 August 1984, pp. 39-66; Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, pp. 269-77. The 1926 amendment increased maternity leave to four weeks before parturition, and six weeks after; although a woman could return to work after four weeks with a doctor's approval, Sakurai, Boseihogo Undôshi, p. 41.
147. The attainment of these provisions in various industries is canvassed in Yamaguchi Miyoko and Maruoka Hideko (eds), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shûsei, vol. 10 (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1981.
148. Oka, Kôjôhô Ron, p. 208.
149. For a comprehensive discussion of opinions on the abolition of night work in the cotton spinning industry, see Janet Hunter, 'Factory Legislation and Employer Resistance: The Abolition of Night Work in the Cotton Spinning Industry' in Tsunehiko Yui and Keiichirô Nakagawa (eds), Japanese Management in Historical Perspective (University of Tokyo) Tokyo, 1989, pp. 243-72.
150. Nolte and Hastings have argued that Japan did not have the same anxieties about the fitness of working-class mothers as was apparent in turn of the century Britain. However, it seems to me that the anxiety about the danger of the spread of tuberculosis from female factory workers reflects a similar anxiety about the health of the recruits who would support Japan's imperialist ambitions. Nolte and Hastings, 'The Meiji State's Policy Towards Women', p. 173; Anna Davin, 'Motherhood and Imperialism', History Workshop: A Journal of Socialist Historians, no. 5, Spring 1978.
151. Nolte and Hastings have argued that Japan did not have the same anxieties about the fitness of working-class mothers as was apparent in turn of the century Britain. However, it seems to me that the anxiety about the danger of the spread of tuberculosis from female factory workers reflects a similar anxiety about the health of the recruits who would support Japan's imperialist ambitions. Nolte and Hastings, 'The Meiji State's Policy Towards Women', p. 173; Anna Davin, 'Motherhood and Imperialism', History Workshop: A Journal of Socialist Historians, no. 5, Spring 1978.
152. Cf. Yamakawa Kikue, 'Rôdô Fujin no Genzai to Sono Shôrai', Nihon Hyôron, February 1919, reprinted in Yamakawa's book, Onna no Tachiba Kara, under the title 'Rôdô Kaikyû no Shimai e', reproduced in Suzuki Yûko (ed.), Josei: Hangyaku to Kakumei to Teikô to (Shakai Hyôronsha) Tokyo, 1990, pp. 54-9.
153. Cf. Yamakawa Kikue, 'Rôdô Fujin no Genzai to Sono Shôrai', Nihon Hyôron, February 1919, reprinted in Yamakawa's book, Onna no Tachiba Kara, under the title 'Rôdô Kaikyû no Shimai e', reproduced in Suzuki Yûko (ed.), Josei: Hangyaku to Kakumei to Teikô to (Shakai Hyôronsha) Tokyo, 1990, pp. 54-9.
154. See fictional representations of factory women which include mention of this issue, such as: Tamura Tomeko, 'Hatabi', Nyonin Geijutsu, November 1931, p. 53.
155. As late as 1936 Maruoka Hideko quoted a government report which showed that most women took leave after the birth of a baby but many worked right up to the moment of birth rather than lose wages. Most women took time for nursing leave but few factories had nursing rooms so that many women were forced to feed babies on the factory floor. Maruoka noted that Japan had the world's highest infant mortality rate, and suggested that such conditions were part of the problem. Maruoka Hideko, 'Boshi hogo no ichi shikaku', Fujin Bungei, vol. 3, no. 2, 1936, reprinted in Maruoka Hideko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shusei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1976, vol. 8, pp. 251-9. See also Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9. Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, 2 volumes. Japanese working women's accounts of these matters can usefully be compared with Margaret Llewelyn Davies (ed.), Maternity: Letters from Working Women (Women's Co-Operative Guild, 1915) (Virago) London, 1978.
156. As late as 1936 Maruoka Hideko quoted a government report which showed that most women took leave after the birth of a baby but many worked right up to the moment of birth rather than lose wages. Most women took time for nursing leave but few factories had nursing rooms so that many women were forced to feed babies on the factory floor. Maruoka noted that Japan had the world's highest infant mortality rate, and suggested that such conditions were part of the problem. Maruoka Hideko, 'Boshi hogo no ichi shikaku', Fujin Bungei, vol. 3, no. 2, 1936, reprinted in Maruoka Hideko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shusei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1976, vol. 8, pp. 251-9. See also Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9. Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, 2 volumes. Japanese working women's accounts of these matters can usefully be compared with Margaret Llewelyn Davies (ed.), Maternity: Letters from Working Women (Women's Co-Operative Guild, 1915) (Virago) London, 1978.
157. As late as 1936 Maruoka Hideko quoted a government report which showed that most women took leave after the birth of a baby but many worked right up to the moment of birth rather than lose wages. Most women took time for nursing leave but few factories had nursing rooms so that many women were forced to feed babies on the factory floor. Maruoka noted that Japan had the world's highest infant mortality rate, and suggested that such conditions were part of the problem. Maruoka Hideko, 'Boshi hogo no ichi shikaku', Fujin Bungei, vol. 3, no. 2, 1936, reprinted in Maruoka Hideko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shusei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1976, vol. 8, pp. 251-9. See also Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9. Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, 2 volumes. Japanese working women's accounts of these matters can usefully be compared with Margaret Llewelyn Davies (ed.), Maternity: Letters from Working Women (Women's Co-Operative Guild, 1915) (Virago) London, 1978.
158. As late as 1936 Maruoka Hideko quoted a government report which showed that most women took leave after the birth of a baby but many worked right up to the moment of birth rather than lose wages. Most women took time for nursing leave but few factories had nursing rooms so that many women were forced to feed babies on the factory floor. Maruoka noted that Japan had the world's highest infant mortality rate, and suggested that such conditions were part of the problem. Maruoka Hideko, 'Boshi hogo no ichi shikaku', Fujin Bungei, vol. 3, no. 2, 1936, reprinted in Maruoka Hideko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shusei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1976, vol. 8, pp. 251-9. See also Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9. Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, 2 volumes. Japanese working women's accounts of these matters can usefully be compared with Margaret Llewelyn Davies (ed.), Maternity: Letters from Working Women (Women's Co-Operative Guild, 1915) (Virago) London, 1978.
159. As late as 1936 Maruoka Hideko quoted a government report which showed that most women took leave after the birth of a baby but many worked right up to the moment of birth rather than lose wages. Most women took time for nursing leave but few factories had nursing rooms so that many women were forced to feed babies on the factory floor. Maruoka noted that Japan had the world's highest infant mortality rate, and suggested that such conditions were part of the problem. Maruoka Hideko, 'Boshi hogo no ichi shikaku', Fujin Bungei, vol. 3, no. 2, 1936, reprinted in Maruoka Hideko (ed.), Nihon Fujin Mondai Shiryô Shusei (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1976, vol. 8, pp. 251-9. See also Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9. Tanino Setsu, Fujin kôjô kantoku kan no kiroku (Domesu Shuppan) Tokyo, 1985, 2 volumes. Japanese working women's accounts of these matters can usefully be compared with Margaret Llewelyn Davies (ed.), Maternity: Letters from Working Women (Women's Co-Operative Guild, 1915) (Virago) London, 1978.
160. Cover of Seigi no Hikari, no. 2, 1926.
161. Gotô Miyoko, I Am Alive (Oakland University: Katydid Books) Oakland, 1988, p. 34.
162. Hosoi Wakizô, Jokô Aishi (1925) (Iwanami Shoten) Tokyo, 1954, cited in Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 38-9.
163. The first dispute calling for menstruation leave was carried out by women conductors on Tokyo public transport in July 1928. Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 58-65; Molony, 'Equality versus Difference', p. 135.
164. The first dispute calling for menstruation leave was carried out by women conductors on Tokyo public transport in July 1928. Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undôshi, pp. 58-65; Molony, 'Equality versus Difference', p. 135.
165. Nishikawa Fumiko, Heiminsha no Onna: Nishikawa Fumiko Jiden, Amano Shigeru (ed.) (Aoyamakan) Tokyo, 1984, p. 137. This contrasts with feminists in other social contexts who attempted to assimilate motherhood to a military model of citizenship, see Lake, 'Mission Impossible'.
166. Cf. Hilary Land's comments on social legislation directed at women as mothers: It is clear that women have often gained social entitlements as mothers, but it is often motherhood as a social category that has been recognised rather than the needs of individual mothers ... Furthermore, governments have been much more inclined to recognise women as mothers when they were also wives'. Hilary Land, 'Introduction', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, p. 284; Denise Riley, War in the Nursery: Theories of the Child and Mother (Virago) London, 1983.
167. Cf. Hilary Land's comments on social legislation directed at women as mothers: It is clear that women have often gained social entitlements as mothers, but it is often motherhood as a social category that has been recognised rather than the needs of individual mothers ... Furthermore, governments have been much more inclined to recognise women as mothers when they were also wives'. Hilary Land, 'Introduction', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, p. 284; Denise Riley, War in the Nursery: Theories of the Child and Mother (Virago) London, 1983.