Syndicalism and Spilled Milk: The Origins of Dairy Farmer Activism in New York State, 1936-1941

Labor History

Volumn 38, Issue 2-3, 1997, Pages 266-286

  Kriger, Thomas J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0031514359     PISSN: 0023656X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00236649712331387098     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
2. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
3. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
4. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
5. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
6. Bruce Nelson coined the term "syndicalist renaissance" in Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1990). See also David Montgomery, Workers' Control of America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (NY, 1979), 91-112; Mike Davis, "The Stop Watch and the Wooden Shoe: Scientific Management and the Industrial Workers of the World," Radical America 9 (Jan.-Feb. 1975), 69-95. The best overview of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky We Shall Be All (Chicago, 1969). Although they do not make specific reference to syndicalism, Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward make a similar analysis in "The Industrial Workers Movement," in Piven and Cloward, Poor People's Movements (NY, 1979), 96-175.
7. For a history of the sit-down strike, see Sidney Fine, Sit-Down: The General Motors Strike of 1936-1937 (Ann Arbor, 1970), Chapt. 5; for a history of the CIO, see Robert H. Zieger, The CIO: 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
8. For a history of the sit-down strike, see Sidney Fine, Sit-Down: The General Motors Strike of 1936-1937 (Ann Arbor, 1970), Chapt. 5; for a history of the CIO, see Robert H. Zieger, The CIO: 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
9. Archie Wright to independent dairymen, Ogdensburg Journal, Oct. 15, 1936, 5.
10. New York Times, Mar. 11, 1883, 7.
11. See Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (Boston, 1972), 128-40, 224-6.
12. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
13. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
14. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
15. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
16. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
17. The largest and most violent Midwestern milk strike in 1932 was the Sioux City (Iowa) Milk War, which served as a catalyst for the more widely publicized Farmers' Holiday Association strikes. See John Shover, Cornbelt Rebellion (Urbana, 1965); Dale Kramer, The Wild Jackasses (NY, 1956), 224-41; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I. "The Crisis of the Old Order" (Boston, 1956), 266-67; Studs Terkel, Hard Times (NY, 1986), 213-29; for the Wisconsin Cooperative Milk Pool strikes, see A. William Hoglund, "Wisconsin Dairy Farmers on Strike," Agricultural History, 35 (1961), 24-34.
18. New York Times, Aug. 13, 1933, Section 4, 1.
19. In much the same fashion of Archie Wright's attempt to bring greater control to milk strikes, Zieger writes of the CIO role in Akron, Ohio, rubber strikes in February-March, 1936: "On one hand, the CIO leaders welcomed and stimulated the grassroots militancy that kept the rubber factories in turmoil. On the other, however, they worked hard to insure that the ultimate repository for the rubber workers' activism would be bona fide unions, led by responsible men and following accepted operating procedures and methods of accountability and governance" (32).
20. New York State, Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate the Milk Industry, Report of the Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate the Milk Industry (Albany, 1933), 60-75 (hereafter cited as the Pitcher Committee Report).
21. New York Times, Mar. 31, 1933, 6; Boonville Herald, Aug. 3, 1933, 1; Oswego Palladium- Times, Aug. 1, 1933, 1; New York Times, Aug. 2, 1933, 2, 5.
22. New York Times, Mar. 31, 1933, 6; Boonville Herald, Aug. 3, 1933, 1; Oswego Palladium- Times, Aug. 1, 1933, 1; New York Times, Aug. 2, 1933, 2, 5.
23. New York Times, Mar. 31, 1933, 6; Boonville Herald, Aug. 3, 1933, 1; Oswego Palladium-Times, Aug. 1, 1933, 1; New York Times, Aug. 2, 1933, 2, 5.
24. New York Times, Mar. 31, 1933, 6; Boonville Herald, Aug. 3, 1933, 1; Oswego Palladium- Times, Aug. 1, 1933, 1; New York Times, Aug. 2, 1933, 2, 5.
25. New York State, Dept. of Agriculture and Markets, Annual Report, 1933 (Albany, 1934), 8.
26. See Alden Manchester, The Public Role in the Dairy Economy (Boulder, CO, 1983), Chapt. 3.
27. Pitcher Committee Report, 165.
28. In March 1922 Borden's and the DLCA Board of Directors completed an agreement: Borden's would buy almost their entire supply of fluid milk from the DLCA, while the DLCA's Board promised not to compete with Borden's lucrative New York City fluid milk market. Years later it was revealed that the DLCA leadership paid thousands of dollars in secret rebates to Borden's executives. See John J. Dillon, Seven Decades of Milk (NY, 1941), 193.
29. Throughout the 1930s, the Dairymen's League typically paid the lowest price of all major co-ops, in large part because the DLCA "had to make deductions from its members checks to finance its substantial investment in plants and transportation equipment." New York State Senate, Legislative Commission on Dairy Industry Development, Review of Dairy Regulations (Albany, 1988), 9.
30. As Bruce Nelson has explained in his excellent study of the maritime unions, American syndicalism was characterized by "a desire to transform the world by fundamentally reshaping the patterns of authority and organization in the realm of work." He pointed out "four readily identifiable dimensions to American syndicalism," including "the impulse toward workers' control of productions," and second, "the belief that direct action at the point of production was the most effective means for the achievement of working class objectives." The third dimension was "the determination to cross traditional craft union barriers in order to build solidarity with other workers - ultimately, the impulse toward One Big Union." The fourth was "striving for fundamental social transformation, embodied in the Wobblies' exhortation to 'bring to birth a new world from the ashes of the old'" (Nelson, 6-7).
31. Ogdensburg Advance News, Dec. 31, 1967;
32. Ogdensburg Republican Journal, June 6, 1917, 5;
33. June 28, 1917, 5;
34. Aug. 22, 1917, 5;
35. Aug. 24, 1917, 5.
36. The Socialist Party provided the "socialistic influences" in Ogdensburg, New York, in 1916, nominating a full slate of candidates, from Presidential electors to aldermen, in St. Lawrence County. After President Wilson asked for a declaration of war against Germany on April 2, 1917, the Socialist Party's (national) Committee on War and Militarism declared the war "a crime against the people of the United States" and pledged "a continuous, active and public opposition" to conscription. See James Weinstein, The Decline of Socialism in America (NY, 1967), 126. Across the U.S., eligible young men were called to register for the draft on June 5; on June 6, the Republican-Journal reported that Wright "had announced his intention to refuse to register." Ironically, Wright was never drafted because he failed his physical.
37. In 1921 Wright's hometown paper carried a reprint of a story he had written for the New Orleans Times Picayune, whose editor prefaced the article with a brief description of its author. The editor claimed Wright had written the article on shore leave, in order to raise money for new socks; he further noted Wright's experiences with "sailor-missionaries from Soviet Russia," and "of beer hall and forecastle proselytizing for communism" on the docks in Trieste, Genoa, Hamburg, Liverpool, and Manchester. When asked about his own politics, Wright informed the editor: "I guess I am rather an advanced socialist; lots of us sailors are." Ogdensburg Republican-Journal, Jan. 22, 1921, 5-6. Wright's politicization was typical of many American sailors (see Nelson, 6-7).
38. On his IWW membership card, Wright is listed as having paid IWW dues from 1921 through 1926. Dairy Farmers Union Collection, Archives, Owen D. Young Library, St. Lawrence Univ., Canton, NY, donated by Tim and Bill Wright (hereafter cited as DFU Collection, St. Lawrence). IWW historians such as Dubofsky (see 287) have been criticized for devoting too little attention to the Marine Transport Workers Union #510. See John Bekken, "Marine Transport workers IU 510 (IWW): Direct Action Unionism," Libertarian Labor Review, 18 (Spring/Summer 1995), 12-25.
39. For many sailors, the craft unionist stance of the ISA was at odds with what Nelson called the "syndicalist impulse" that swept the maritime professions in the early 1920s. Paradoxically, as the IWW declined across the U.S. in the early twenties, the Marine Transport Workers (#510) gained thousands of new members, in part because of their advocacy of direct action to improve sailors' working conditions (see Nelson, 50-60). For an example of how direct action improved working conditions for the rank and file, see "An Incident in a Sailor's Life," Industrial Pioneer II (Oct. 1924), 13-14.
40. Interview with Tim Wright, Canton, New York, 14 (Mar. 14, 1995).
41. New York Times, Aug. 21, 1939, 2.
42. St. Lawrence Plaindealer. Sept. 29, 1936, 1.
43. Preamble and Constitution of the Industrial Workers of the World (Chicago, 1919). 1; DFU Constitution, 1, DFU Collection, St. Lawrence.
44. Preamble and Constitution of the Industrial Workers of the World (Chicago, 1919). 1; DFU Constitution, 1, DFU Collection, St. Lawrence.
45. See Linda G. Ford, "Another Double Burden: Farm Women and Agrarian Activism in Depression Era New York State," New York History (1994), 373-98.
46. Both quotes are from a Wright letter to FUNY [Farmers Union of the New York Milkshed] delegates, Dec. 17, 1956, Dairy Farmers Union and Farmers Union of the New York Milkshed Papers, Dept. of Manuscripts and University Archives, Cornell Univ. Library, Ithaca, NY (hereafter cited as either the DFU or FUNY Papers, Cornell).
47. New York State, Dept. of Agriculture and Markets, Annual Report, 1937, 143.
48. New York Times, Sept. 22, 1937, 4.
49. St. Lawrence County Plaindealer, Aug. 31, 1937, 1.
50. St. Lawrence Plaindealer, Oct. 12, 1937, 3.
51. The Union Farmer, July 25, 1938, 3. Union locals represented in the Federation included the Massena Aluminum Workers, the Bombay Boot and Shoe Workers, the Malone Bronze and Aluminum Workers, the Remington Rand Union in Ilion (Herkimer County), as well as various carpenters, truck drivers, and paper and pulp workers.
52. Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987 (NY, 1987), 3.
53. In 1938, the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture completed an agreement with the New York State Dept. of Agriculture and Markets, which applied the provisions of the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 to the New York milkshed. Simply put, this new law created a "market order system" in which milk prices were determined by negotiations between government-sanctioned "bargaining agencies," composed of recognized farmer and dealer organizations. The DFU was obviously excluded. See Manchester, 135-56; Review of Dairy Regulation, 30-33. On Feb. 23, 1939, U.S. District Court Judge Frank Cooper declared the market order system in New York unconstitutional because the Producers Bargaining Agency had been created in a way that favored large co-ops such as the Dairymen's League. United States v. Rock Royal Co-op, Inc., et al., Federal Supp. 26 (Dist. Court, N. D. New York 1939).
54. In 1938, the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture completed an agreement with the New York State Dept. of Agriculture and Markets, which applied the provisions of the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 to the New York milkshed. Simply put, this new law created a "market order system" in which milk prices were determined by negotiations between government-sanctioned "bargaining agencies," composed of recognized farmer and dealer organizations. The DFU was obviously excluded. See Manchester, 135-56; Review of Dairy Regulation, 30-33. On Feb. 23, 1939, U.S. District Court Judge Frank Cooper declared the market order system in New York unconstitutional because the Producers Bargaining Agency had been created in a way that favored large co-ops such as the Dairymen's League. United States v. Rock Royal Co-op, Inc., et al., Federal Supp. 26 (Dist. Court, N. D. New York 1939).
55. Watertown Daily Times, Aug. 10, 1939, 3.
56. New York State Health Commissioner John L. Rice called the DFU strike "insignificant." Henry Rathbun, Vice-President of the Dairymen's League, declared that the DLCA was short only two percent of their normal deliveries; he attributed the shortage to "threats, intimidation and fear of CIO brutality." New York Times, Aug. 15, 1939, 1.
57. The CIO quickly became the bogeyman of DFU opponents. Baldwin, for example, declared that the CIO was "sending 700 pickets from automotive industrial centers into the country to help close milk plants and rule the highways." New York Times, Aug. 16, 1939, 25, Aug. 17, 1939, 42.
58. The CIO quickly became the bogeyman of DFU opponents. Baldwin, for example, declared that the CIO was "sending 700 pickets from automotive industrial centers into the country to help close milk plants and rule the highways." New York Times, Aug. 16, 1939, 25, Aug. 17, 1939, 42.
59. Watertown Daily Times, Aug. 15, 1939, 18.
60. The concept of free riders, in this sense, is quite different from its original meaning. See Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, MA, 1971).
61. The Union Farmer, Sept. 25, 1939, 1; Lowell K. Dyson, Red Harvest (Lincoln, NE, 1982), 172-73.
62. The Union Farmer, Sept. 25, 1939, 1; Lowell K. Dyson, Red Harvest (Lincoln, NE, 1982), 172-73.
63. The Dairy Farmer, Aug. 25, 1939, 4.
64. See The Union Farmer, Sept. 25, 1939, 3.
65. The New York Times, Sept. 1, 1939, 1.
66. Watertown Daily Times, Aug. 22, 1939, 4.
67. One of the largest celebrations occurred in the DFU stronghold of Canton, New York, where a crowd of 900 carried two coffins down Main Street during a mock funeral. One bore the label "the Dairymen's League," the other "the Milk Monopoly." Watertown Daily Times, Aug. 28, 1939, 3.
68. New York Times, Oct. 1, 1939, 12.
69. This former DFU farmer recounted the 1939 strike victory in terms of his control over the workday. Following the strike, he recalled that Sheffield Farms no longer set early morning deadlines on milk deliveries: But the one thing I always said [the strike] did, even if it hadn't raised the price of milk, it got it so we could take our milk through the day, not exactly at 9 o'clock. Because I've been down there more than once when you were taking in a lot of milk and set and the plant would open-you'd go there and sit and wait-to get unloaded. And if you wasn't there early enough, come 9 o'clock they'd shut the door. I remember twice that I went back and set the milk back on the truck and brought it home. (Interview with former DFU member Howard Crowe. Heuvelton, NY, April 8, 1992).
70. The Dairy Farmer, Jan. 1941, 1.
71. In August 1940 Sheffield Farms and Borden's paid DFU farmers a lump sum of $91,090.25 to settle a suit filed by the DFU and supported by Mayor LaGuardia. Ignoring LaGuardia's agreement, the dealers had issued checks based on prices lower than those specified in the strike settlement. See The Union Farmer, Aug. 25, 1940; Dyson, 175-76.
72. In August 1940 Sheffield Farms and Borden's paid DFU farmers a lump sum of $91,090.25 to settle a suit filed by the DFU and supported by Mayor LaGuardia. Ignoring LaGuardia's agreement, the dealers had issued checks based on prices lower than those specified in the strike settlement. See The Union Farmer, Aug. 25, 1940; Dyson, 175-76.
73. For the dealers' red-baiting campaign, see Dyson, 177-81; see also Tim Wright, "Milk Strike: The History of the Dairy Farmers Union of New York, 1936-1941" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton Univ., 1974), Chapt. 5; for the Dies Committee allegations, see U.S. Congress, House, Hearings on Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States (Washington, DC, 1938). Vol. 1, 913; see also The Dairy Farmer, Dec. 12, 1939, 1; Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987, 3.
74. For the dealers' red-baiting campaign, see Dyson, 177-81; see also Tim Wright, "Milk Strike: The History of the Dairy Farmers Union of New York, 1936-1941" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton Univ., 1974), Chapt. 5; for the Dies Committee allegations, see U.S. Congress, House, Hearings on Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States (Washington, DC, 1938). Vol. 1, 913; see also The Dairy Farmer, Dec. 12, 1939, 1; Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987, 3.
75. For the dealers' red-baiting campaign, see Dyson, 177-81; see also Tim Wright, "Milk Strike: The History of the Dairy Farmers Union of New York, 1936-1941" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton Univ., 1974), Chapt. 5; for the Dies Committee allegations, see U.S. Congress, House, Hearings on Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States (Washington, DC, 1938). Vol. 1, 913; see also The Dairy Farmer, Dec. 12, 1939, 1; Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987, 3.
76. For the dealers' red-baiting campaign, see Dyson, 177-81; see also Tim Wright, "Milk Strike: The History of the Dairy Farmers Union of New York, 1936-1941" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton Univ., 1974), Chapt. 5; for the Dies Committee allegations, see U.S. Congress, House, Hearings on Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States (Washington, DC, 1938). Vol. 1, 913; see also The Dairy Farmer, Dec. 12, 1939, 1; Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987, 3.
77. For the dealers' red-baiting campaign, see Dyson, 177-81; see also Tim Wright, "Milk Strike: The History of the Dairy Farmers Union of New York, 1936-1941" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton Univ., 1974), Chapt. 5; for the Dies Committee allegations, see U.S. Congress, House, Hearings on Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States (Washington, DC, 1938). Vol. 1, 913; see also The Dairy Farmer, Dec. 12, 1939, 1; Consumer-Farmer Foundation, 1937-1987, 3.
78. American Agriculturalist, Sept. 16, 1939, 9.
79. Dyson, 178-79.
80. Ogdensburg Journal, July 19, 1956, 4.
81. For more on the formation of the FUNY, see Watertown Daily Times, April 8-May 12, 1941.
82. The complete name of the NFU was the Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union. Although the NFU maintained friendly relations with organized labor, it was organized variously as a marketing cooperative or a traditional interest group rather than an industrial union. For more on the NFU. see Theodore Soloutos and John D. Hicks, Twentieth Century Populism (Lincoln, NE, 1951). Chapt. VIII.
83. Richard Valelly, Radicalism in the States (Chicago, 1989).
84. Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency (Chicago, 1982), 56.
85. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People (New York, 1960), 1-19.
86. Nelson, 185.