Big Science and big politics in the United States: Reflections on the death of the SSC and the life of the Human Genome Project

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 269-297

  Kevles, Daniel ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031514257     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757780     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Weinberg, testimony, U.S. Congress, House, Hearings before the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology: Superconducting Super Collider, 100th Cong., 1st Sess., 7-9 Apr 1987, 244.
2. Sheldon L. Glashow and Leon M. Lederman, "The SSC: A machine for the nineties," PT, 38 (Mar 1985), 28-37.
3. U.S. Congress, House, Hearing before the Task Force on defense, foreign policy and space, Committee on the Budget, establishing priorities in science funding, 102nd Cong., 1st Sess., 11 and 18 Jul 1991, 78 (hereafter, House, Hearing, Task Force, 1991).
4. U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Natural Resources, on the Department of Energy's Superconducting Super Collider Project, 102nd Cong., 1st Sess., 16 Apr 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 12 (hereafter, Senate, Hearings, Energy, SSC, 1991).
5. Ibid., 48; Robert Bazell, "Quark barrel politics," New republic, 196 (22 June 1987), 9-10.
6. Ibid., 48; Robert Bazell, "Quark barrel politics," New republic, 196 (22 June 1987), 9-10.
7. Joel Davis, Mapping the code: The Human Genome Project and the choices of modern science (New York, 1990), 97-98; Joseph Bishop and Michael Waldholz, Genome: The story of the most astonishing scientific adventure of our time - The attempt to map all the genes in the human body (New York, 1990), 217-218.
8. Joel Davis, Mapping the code: The Human Genome Project and the choices of modern science (New York, 1990), 97-98; Joseph Bishop and Michael Waldholz, Genome: The story of the most astonishing scientific adventure of our time - The attempt to map all the genes in the human body (New York, 1990), 217-218.
9. Robert Mullan Cook-Deegan, "The Human Genome Project: The formation of federal policies in the United States, 1986-1990," in Kathi E. Hanna, ed., Biomedical politics (Washington, D.C.: Division of Health Sciences Policy, Committee to Study Biomedical Decision Making, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, 1991), 123.
10. Robert Mullen Cook-Deegan, "The Alta Summit, December 1984," Genomics, 5 (1989), 661-662; Charles R. Cantor, "Orchestrating the Human Genome Project," Science, 248 (6 Apr 1990), 49-51; Davis (ref. 6), 95-96.
11. Robert Mullen Cook-Deegan, "The Alta Summit, December 1984," Genomics, 5 (1989), 661-662; Charles R. Cantor, "Orchestrating the Human Genome Project," Science, 248 (6 Apr 1990), 49-51; Davis (ref. 6), 95-96.
12. Ibid., 115-116; Tracy L. Friedman, The science and politics of the Human Genome Project (Princeton: Senior thesis, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Apr 1990), 31-32.
13. Ibid., 115-116; Tracy L. Friedman, The science and politics of the Human Genome Project (Princeton: Senior thesis, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Apr 1990), 31-32.
14. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 118; Friedman (ibid.), 31-32; Benjamin J. Barnhart, "The Human Genome Project: A DOE perspective," BioDoc, file CB27.188, 2.
15. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 118; Friedman (ibid.), 31-32; Benjamin J. Barnhart, "The Human Genome Project: A DOE perspective," BioDoc, file CB27.188, 2.
16. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 120; Friedman (ref. 9), 38-39; U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Department of Energy National Laboratory Cooperative Research Initiatives Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. (15 and 17 Sep 1987).
17. Friedman (ref. 9), 45.
18. Davis (ref. 6), 178-181; Akiyoshi Wada and Eiichi Soeda, "Strategy for building an automatic and high speed DNA-sequencing system," manuscript (copy in my possession), 1986, 10; Leslie Roberts, "Human genome: Questions of cost," Science, 237 (18 Sep 1987), 1411-1412. As it turned out, the Japanese group's expectations were grossly exaggerated.
19. Davis (ref. 6), 178-181; Akiyoshi Wada and Eiichi Soeda, "Strategy for building an automatic and high speed DNA-sequencing system," manuscript (copy in my possession), 1986, 10; Leslie Roberts, "Human genome: Questions of cost," Science, 237 (18 Sep 1987), 1411-1412. As it turned out, the Japanese group's expectations were grossly exaggerated.
20. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
21. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
22. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
23. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
24. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
25. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
26. Ferguson-Smith, "European approach," The FASEB journal, 5 (5 Jan 1991), 61-65, on 62; Watson and Cook-Deegan, "Origins of the Human Genome Project," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 8-11, on 9-10 ; M. Curien Lance, "Une programme national de recherche sur le genome humain," Le monde (10 Oct 1990); Tabitha M. Powledge, "Toward the year 2005," P1-P6; "E.C. joins 'Human Frontier Programme,'" Scrip (26 Sep 1990); 6 telephone conversations with Gordon Lake, of the European Parliament staff, 24 Apr 1991; Gaudillière, "French strategies in molecular biology," 4; "List of genome research projects under CEC programmes," Technology transfer newsletter, 11 (Oct/Nov 1989), 19.
27. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 124-125; Watson and Cook-Deegan (ibid.), 9.
28. Friedman (ref. 9), 32-35, 40-41, 56-59.
29. Ibid., 38-42, 45; Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 134-135, 141; Watson and Cook-Deegan (ref. 14), 10. The health agency received $17.2 million, almost 50% more than the amount given the energy department
30. Davis (ref. 6), 126-128; Robert A. Weinberg, "The case against gene sequencing," The scientist (16 Nov 1987), 11. See also Francisco J. Ayala, "Two frontiers of human biology: What the sequence won't tell us," Issues in science and technology (Spring 1987), 51-56, on 56; Christopher Joyce, "The race to map the human genome," New scientist (5 Mar 1987), 35-39, on 35.
31. Davis (ref. 6), 126-128; Robert A. Weinberg, "The case against gene sequencing," The scientist (16 Nov 1987), 11. See also Francisco J. Ayala, "Two frontiers of human biology: What the sequence won't tell us," Issues in science and technology (Spring 1987), 51-56, on 56; Christopher Joyce, "The race to map the human genome," New scientist (5 Mar 1987), 35-39, on 35.
32. Davis (ref. 6), 126-128; Robert A. Weinberg, "The case against gene sequencing," The scientist (16 Nov 1987), 11. See also Francisco J. Ayala, "Two frontiers of human biology: What the sequence won't tell us," Issues in science and technology (Spring 1987), 51-56, on 56; Christopher Joyce, "The race to map the human genome," New scientist (5 Mar 1987), 35-39, on 35.
33. Quoted in Friedman (ref. 9), 95; Bishop and Waldholz (ref. 6), 221-222; Joyce (ibid.), 35.
34. Watson and Cook-Deegan, (ref. 14), 9; Cantor (ref. 8), 50; Leslie Roberts, "Academy backs genome project," Science, 239 (12 Feb 1986), 725-726;
35. Committee on Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome, Board on Basic Biology, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Mapping and sequencing the Human Genome (Washington, D.C., 1988), 1-10.
36. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 141; Friedman (ref. 9), 60-61, 63-64; John M. Barry, "Cracking the code," The Washingtonian (Feb 1991), 182.
37. Stephen S. Hall, "James Watson and the search for biology's 'Holy Grail,'" Smithsonian (Feb 1990), 47-48; James D. Watson, "Moving toward clonal man: Is this what we want?" The Atlantic, 227 (May 1971), 53; Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 149.
38. Stephen S. Hall, "James Watson and the search for biology's 'Holy Grail,'" Smithsonian (Feb 1990), 47-48; James D. Watson, "Moving toward clonal man: Is this what we want?" The Atlantic, 227 (May 1971), 53; Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 149.
39. Hall (ibid.), 47-48; Davis (ref. 6), 262.
40. Cook-Deegan (ref. 7), 152; Watson and Cook-Deegan (ref. 14), 10; Friedman (ref. 9), 61, 107. Leslie Roberts, "Genome Center grants chosen," Science, 249 (28 Sept 1990), 1497. Early in 1990, NIH and DOE managed to submit a five-year joint genome research plan to Congress.
41. Roberts (ibid.), 1497. Baylor College of Medicine was later added to the six institutions listed in Roberts' article.
42. Davis (ref. 6), 178-181; Friedman (ref. 9), 50-51.
43. Therese Lloyd, "SSC faces uncertain future," The scientist (23 Feb 1987), 8; Rustum Roy, letters, PT, 38 (Sep 1985), 9-10;
44. Therese Lloyd, "SSC faces uncertain future," The scientist (23 Feb 1987), 8; Rustum Roy, letters, PT, 38 (Sep 1985), 9-10;
45. 40 (Feb 1987), 13.
46. House, SST hearings (1993), 89.
47. Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a final theory: The search for the fundamental laws of nature (New York, 1992), 54-55.
48. House, SST hearing, 1993, 89-90; U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Natural Resources, Department of Energy's fiscal year 1990 budget request for the Office of Energy research, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. (24 Feb 1989), 135.
49. House, SST hearing, 1993, 89-90; U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Natural Resources, Department of Energy's fiscal year 1990 budget request for the Office of Energy research, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. (24 Feb 1989), 135.
50. Bloembergen to Richard A. Carrigan, 21 May 1992, in U.S. Congress, Senate, Joint hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development, importance and status of the Superconducting Super Collider, 102nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 30 June 1992, 12. On later reflection, Lederman said that Fermilab could take "a modicum of credit" for the MRI industry. Lederman, with Teresi, The God particle, 233-234.
51. Bloembergen to Richard A. Carrigan, 21 May 1992, in U.S. Congress, Senate, Joint hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development, importance and status of the Superconducting Super Collider, 102nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 30 June 1992, 12. On later reflection, Lederman said that Fermilab could take "a modicum of credit" for the MRI industry. Lederman, with Teresi, The God particle, 233-234.
52. House, Hearing, Task Force, 1991, 65.
53. Kim A. McDonald, "University consortium charged with mismanaging work on Supercollider," The chronicle of higher education (6 May 1992), A30.
54. PT, 45 (Aug 1992), 59.
55. Victor S. Rezendes, Director, Energy and Science Issues, General Accounting Office, House, SST Hearing, 1993, 177-178, 181-182, 189-190, 195.
56. Ibid., H4820.
57. House, SST Hearings, 1993, 2.
58. CA, 103rd, House (24 June 1993), H4057.
59. Ibid., H4052, H4063-H4064.
60. U.S. Congress, Senate, Joint hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development, Superconducting Super Collider, 103rd Cong., 1st Sess., 4 Aug 1993, 102, 80, 54; House, SST Hearings, 1993, 59.
61. U.S. Congress, Senate, Joint hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development, Superconducting Super Collider, 103rd Cong., 1st Sess., 4 Aug 1993, 102, 80, 54; House, SST Hearings, 1993, 59.
62. CR, 103rd, Senate (29 Sep 1993), S12705.
63. Ibid., H8101, H8109, H81117; "Congress pulls the plug on the Super Collider," Los Angeles Times (22 Oct 1993), 20.
64. Michael Syvanen et al. to colleagues, electronic mail notice (16 Apr 1990), printout in my possession; Martin C. Rechsteiner letter, Feb 1990, attached to Rechsteiner to Norman Davidson (23 Feb 1990), copy in my possession; Bernard Davis et al., "The Human Genome and other initiatives," Science, 249 (1990), 342-343; John M. Barry, (ref. 21), 183; Jeffrey Mervis, "On Capitol Hill: One day in the hard life of the Genome Project," The scientist (20 Aug 1990), 1. Rechsteiner's letter was published in The FASEB journal, 4 (1990), 2941-2942. James Wyngarden, a former director of NIH and a supporter of the genome project, noted, "If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly." Barry (ibid.), 63. See also Robert Wright, "Achilles helix," New republic, 203 (9 and 16 Jul 1990), 30.
65. Michael Syvanen et al. to colleagues, electronic mail notice (16 Apr 1990), printout in my possession; Martin C. Rechsteiner letter, Feb 1990, attached to Rechsteiner to Norman Davidson (23 Feb 1990), copy in my possession; Bernard Davis et al., "The Human Genome and other initiatives," Science, 249 (1990), 342-343; John M. Barry, (ref. 21), 183; Jeffrey Mervis, "On Capitol Hill: One day in the hard life of the Genome Project," The scientist (20 Aug 1990), 1. Rechsteiner's letter was published in The FASEB journal, 4 (1990), 2941-2942. James Wyngarden, a former director of NIH and a supporter of the genome project, noted, "If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly." Barry (ibid.), 63. See also Robert Wright, "Achilles helix," New republic, 203 (9 and 16 Jul 1990), 30.
66. Michael Syvanen et al. to colleagues, electronic mail notice (16 Apr 1990), printout in my possession; Martin C. Rechsteiner letter, Feb 1990, attached to Rechsteiner to Norman Davidson (23 Feb 1990), copy in my possession; Bernard Davis et al., "The Human Genome and other initiatives," Science, 249 (1990), 342-343; John M. Barry, (ref. 21), 183; Jeffrey Mervis, "On Capitol Hill: One day in the hard life of the Genome Project," The scientist (20 Aug 1990), 1. Rechsteiner's letter was published in The FASEB journal, 4 (1990), 2941-2942. James Wyngarden, a former director of NIH and a supporter of the genome project, noted, "If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly." Barry (ibid.), 63. See also Robert Wright, "Achilles helix," New republic, 203 (9 and 16 Jul 1990), 30.
67. Michael Syvanen et al. to colleagues, electronic mail notice (16 Apr 1990), printout in my possession; Martin C. Rechsteiner letter, Feb 1990, attached to Rechsteiner to Norman Davidson (23 Feb 1990), copy in my possession; Bernard Davis et al., "The Human Genome and other initiatives," Science, 249 (1990), 342-343; John M. Barry, (ref. 21), 183; Jeffrey Mervis, "On Capitol Hill: One day in the hard life of the Genome Project," The scientist (20 Aug 1990), 1. Rechsteiner's letter was published in The FASEB journal, 4 (1990), 2941-2942. James Wyngarden, a former director of NIH and a supporter of the genome project, noted, "If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly." Barry (ibid.), 63. See also Robert Wright, "Achilles helix," New republic, 203 (9 and 16 Jul 1990), 30.
68. Michael Syvanen et al. to colleagues, electronic mail notice (16 Apr 1990), printout in my possession; Martin C. Rechsteiner letter, Feb 1990, attached to Rechsteiner to Norman Davidson (23 Feb 1990), copy in my possession; Bernard Davis et al., "The Human Genome and other initiatives," Science, 249 (1990), 342-343; John M. Barry, (ref. 21), 183; Jeffrey Mervis, "On Capitol Hill: One day in the hard life of the Genome Project," The scientist (20 Aug 1990), 1. Rechsteiner's letter was published in The FASEB journal, 4 (1990), 2941-2942. James Wyngarden, a former director of NIH and a supporter of the genome project, noted, "If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly." Barry (ibid.), 63. See also Robert Wright, "Achilles helix," New republic, 203 (9 and 16 Jul 1990), 30.
69. Barry (ref. 21), 183; Leslie Roberts, "Plan for Genome Center sparks a controversy," Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 204; Davis et al., "The human genome and other initiatives," 342. See also Bernard D. Davis, "Some problems with a crash program," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 76.
70. Barry (ref. 21), 183; Leslie Roberts, "Plan for Genome Center sparks a controversy," Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 204; Davis et al., "The human genome and other initiatives," 342. See also Bernard D. Davis, "Some problems with a crash program," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 76.
71. Barry (ref. 21), 183; Leslie Roberts, "Plan for Genome Center sparks a controversy," Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 204; Davis et al., "The human genome and other initiatives," 342. See also Bernard D. Davis, "Some problems with a crash program," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 76.
72. Rechsteiner, TIBS (16 Dec 1991), 4557. In the spring of 1990, a student of the project noted, "This widespread fear among biologists of 'big science,' and the accompanying doubts about the feasibility of the project, especially in the context of a biologial science community that remains unconvinced about the benefits of contributing to such a project, will undoubtedly continue to haunt administrators of the project over the next fifteen years (or more)." Friedman (ref. 9), 82.
73. Rechsteiner letter (Feb 1990), 1-2; Natalie Angier, "Vast 15-year effort to decipher genes stirs opposition," New York Times (5 June 1990), B5.
74. Friedman (ref. 9), 99-101, 104-105; Rechsteiner ms (22 Apr 1991), 2.
75. Rechsteiner (ibid.), 2; Rechsteiner, letter (Feb 1990), 2; Davis et al. (ref. 44), 342.
76. "Physiology or medicine 1954: Presentation speech by Professor S. Gard, member of the staff of professors of the Royal Caroline Institute," Nobel lectures. . .physiology or medicine, 1942-1962, 447. Patricia Hoben, a molecular biologist and staff member at the Office of Technology Assessment, has remarked that the human genome project "goes against the whole culture of biomedical research" and that few biologists focus "on the kind of technical aspects of research and are really wizards in that, and there are few who would want to be." Friedman (ref. 9), 69-70.
77. J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. I (Berkley, 1990), 156-157, 189-190, 219; Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, 1987), 274-275; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 358-391; Lily E. Kay, Cooperative individualism and the growth of molecular biology at the California Institute of Technology, 1928-1953 (Ann Arbor, 1987), esp. chapts. 2, 4 and 5.
78. J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. I (Berkley, 1990), 156-157, 189-190, 219; Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, 1987), 274-275; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 358-391; Lily E. Kay, Cooperative individualism and the growth of molecular biology at the California Institute of Technology, 1928-1953 (Ann Arbor, 1987), esp. chapts. 2, 4 and 5.
79. J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. I (Berkley, 1990), 156-157, 189-190, 219; Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, 1987), 274-275; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 358-391; Lily E. Kay, Cooperative individualism and the growth of molecular biology at the California Institute of Technology, 1928-1953 (Ann Arbor, 1987), esp. chapts. 2, 4 and 5.
80. J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. I (Berkley, 1990), 156-157, 189-190, 219; Daniel J. Kevles, The physicists: The history of a scientific community in modern America (Cambridge, 1987), 274-275; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 358-391; Lily E. Kay, Cooperative individualism and the growth of molecular biology at the California Institute of Technology, 1928-1953 (Ann Arbor, 1987), esp. chapts. 2, 4 and 5.
81. Friedman (ref. 9), 1-2; Daniel E. Koshland, Jr., "Sequences and consequences of the human genome," editorial, Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 189; William J. Broad, "Heavy costs of major projects pose a threat to basic science," The New York Times (27 May 1990), 1, 20; William J. Broad, "Small scale science feels pinch from big projects," The New York Times (4 Sep 1990), C1, C6.
82. Friedman (ref. 9), 1-2; Daniel E. Koshland, Jr., "Sequences and consequences of the human genome," editorial, Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 189; William J. Broad, "Heavy costs of major projects pose a threat to basic science," The New York Times (27 May 1990), 1, 20; William J. Broad, "Small scale science feels pinch from big projects," The New York Times (4 Sep 1990), C1, C6.
83. Friedman (ref. 9), 1-2; Daniel E. Koshland, Jr., "Sequences and consequences of the human genome," editorial, Science, 246 (13 Oct 1989), 189; William J. Broad, "Heavy costs of major projects pose a threat to basic science," The New York Times (27 May 1990), 1, 20; William J. Broad, "Small scale science feels pinch from big projects," The New York Times (4 Sep 1990), C1, C6.
84. Clifford Krauss, "Knocked out by the freshmen," The New York Times (26 Oct 1993), B10.
85. House, SST Hearing, 1993, 120; CR, 103rd (18 May 1993), S5996-S5997, S6000-S6003; CK, 102nd, Senate (3 Aug 1992), S11165; Linda R. Cohen and Gretchen A. Kalsow, "Who killed the Superconducting Supercollider?" unpublished ms (1994), 22.
86. House, SST Hearing, 1993, 120; CR, 103rd (18 May 1993), S5996-S5997, S6000-S6003; CK, 102nd, Senate (3 Aug 1992), S11165; Linda R. Cohen and Gretchen A. Kalsow, "Who killed the Superconducting Supercollider?" unpublished ms (1994), 22.
87. Irwin Goodwin, "Good news for the SSC as Senate approves funds and magnets work," PT, 45 (Sept 1992), 55.
88. Holly Idelson, "House denies atom smasher its 1993 expense account," Congressional quarterly (20 June 1992), 1783.
89. CA, 102nd, House (17 June 1992), H4820.
90. The model of the Geological Survey affected the organization of scientific research in the private sector, particularly in the debates over how Andrew Carnegie's munificent gift to establish the Carnegie Institution of Washington should best be used. See Kevles (ref. 49), 82-83.
91. Lander talk, "The Human Genome Project." The 1991 budget figures are estimates and were provided by Erin Burgess, Budget Officer, National Center for Human Genome Research.
92. For the high cost of high-technology biology in its early days, see Kay (ref. 49), 113-112-187, 226-240.
93. Leslie Roberts, "New game plan for genome mapping," Science, 245 (29 Sep 1989), 1438-1440; Friedman (ref. 9), 26-27.
94. Robert Wright (ref. 43), 23.
95. "Gene maps that guide biological explorers," The independent (4 Dec 1989), BioDoc; Francis S. Collins, "The Genome Project and human health," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 77; Victor A. McKusick, "Mapping and sequencing the Human Genome," New England journal of medicine, 320 (6 Apr 1989), 914-915.
96. "Gene maps that guide biological explorers," The independent (4 Dec 1989), BioDoc; Francis S. Collins, "The Genome Project and human health," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 77; Victor A. McKusick, "Mapping and sequencing the Human Genome," New England journal of medicine, 320 (6 Apr 1989), 914-915.
97. "Gene maps that guide biological explorers," The independent (4 Dec 1989), BioDoc; Francis S. Collins, "The Genome Project and human health," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 77; Victor A. McKusick, "Mapping and sequencing the Human Genome," New England journal of medicine, 320 (6 Apr 1989), 914-915.
98. Paul Berg, "All our collective ingenuity will be needed," The FASEB journal, 5 (Jan 1991), 75.
99. Victor McKusick, "Current trends in mapping human genes," FASEB journal, 5:1 (Jan 1991), 12-20, on 19.
100. Eric Lander, "The Human Genome Project," talk at "Scientist-to-scientist colloquium," Keystone, Colorado (Aug 1991).