Business and international environmental treaties: Ozone depletion and climate change

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 3, 1997, Pages 54-71

  Levy, David L ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031495580     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41165898     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Details of the negotiations up to 1992 can be found in Ian H. Rowlands, The Politics of Global Atmospheric Change (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Daniel Bodansky, "Prologue to the Climate Change Convention," in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 45-74; Alan D. Hecht and Dennis Tirpak, "Framework Agreement on Climate Change: A Scientific and Policy History," Climatic Change, 29 (1995): 371-402. The best sources for the post-1992 negotiations, particularly the COP-1 and COP-2 rounds in Berlin and Geneva, are the Earth Negotiations Bulletin, published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, at Web site http://www.iisd.ca/linkages, and the ECO newsletters published by the Climate Action Network, a coalition of environmental NGOs, available at Web site http://www.igc.apc.org/climate/eco.html.
2. Details of the negotiations up to 1992 can be found in Ian H. Rowlands, The Politics of Global Atmospheric Change (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Daniel Bodansky, "Prologue to the Climate Change Convention," in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 45-74; Alan D. Hecht and Dennis Tirpak, "Framework Agreement on Climate Change: A Scientific and Policy History," Climatic Change, 29 (1995): 371-402. The best sources for the post-1992 negotiations, particularly the COP-1 and COP-2 rounds in Berlin and Geneva, are the Earth Negotiations Bulletin, published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, at Web site http://www.iisd.ca/linkages, and the ECO newsletters published by the Climate Action Network, a coalition of environmental NGOs, available at Web site http://www.igc.apc.org/climate/eco.html.
3. Details of the negotiations up to 1992 can be found in Ian H. Rowlands, The Politics of Global Atmospheric Change (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Daniel Bodansky, "Prologue to the Climate Change Convention," in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 45-74; Alan D. Hecht and Dennis Tirpak, "Framework Agreement on Climate Change: A Scientific and Policy History," Climatic Change, 29 (1995): 371-402. The best sources for the post-1992 negotiations, particularly the COP-1 and COP-2 rounds in Berlin and Geneva, are the Earth Negotiations Bulletin, published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, at Web site http://www.iisd.ca/linkages, and the ECO newsletters published by the Climate Action Network, a coalition of environmental NGOs, available at Web site http://www.igc.apc.org/climate/eco.html.
4. Details of the negotiations up to 1992 can be found in Ian H. Rowlands, The Politics of Global Atmospheric Change (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Daniel Bodansky, "Prologue to the Climate Change Convention," in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 45-74; Alan D. Hecht and Dennis Tirpak, "Framework Agreement on Climate Change: A Scientific and Policy History," Climatic Change, 29 (1995): 371-402. The best sources for the post-1992 negotiations, particularly the COP-1 and COP-2 rounds in Berlin and Geneva, are the Earth Negotiations Bulletin, published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, at Web site http://www.iisd.ca/linkages, and the ECO newsletters published by the Climate Action Network, a coalition of environmental NGOs, available at Web site http://www.igc.apc.org/climate/eco.html.
5. Details of the negotiations up to 1992 can be found in Ian H. Rowlands, The Politics of Global Atmospheric Change (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gareth Porter and Janet W. Brown, Global Environmental Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Daniel Bodansky, "Prologue to the Climate Change Convention," in Irving M. Mintzer and J. Amber Leonard, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 45-74; Alan D. Hecht and Dennis Tirpak, "Framework Agreement on Climate Change: A Scientific and Policy History," Climatic Change, 29 (1995): 371-402. The best sources for the post-1992 negotiations, particularly the COP-1 and COP-2 rounds in Berlin and Geneva, are the Earth Negotiations Bulletin, published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development, at Web site http://www.iisd.ca/linkages, and the ECO newsletters published by the Climate Action Network, a coalition of environmental NGOs, available at Web site http://www.igc.apc.org/climate/eco.html.
6. See World Energy Council, Climate Change Negotiations: COP-2 and Beyond, Report No. 6, London, September 1996.
7. Various scientific studies estimate that cuts in GHG emissions of around 50% from 1990 levels are required to stabilize atmospheric concentrations at double the pre-industrial level. At the COP-2 negotiations in Geneva in July 1996, European countries favorable to mandatory controls were proposing cuts on the order of 10-15% by the year 2010.
8. On ozone depletion, see Kenneth A. Oye and James H. Maxwell, "Self-Interest and Environmental Management," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 6/4 (1994): 593-624; Edward A. Parson "Protecting the Ozone Layer," in Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane, and Marc A. Levy, eds., Institutions for the Earth (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993). There have not yet been similar comprehensive analyses of climate change.
9. On ozone depletion, see Kenneth A. Oye and James H. Maxwell, "Self-Interest and Environmental Management," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 6/4 (1994): 593-624; Edward A. Parson "Protecting the Ozone Layer," in Peter M. Haas, Robert O. Keohane, and Marc A. Levy, eds., Institutions for the Earth (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993). There have not yet been similar comprehensive analyses of climate change.
10. Peter Haas has described the evolution of international "epistemic communities" that played a critical role in generating the momentum leading to the Montreal Protocol. Peter M. Haas, "Banning Chlorofluorocarbons: Epistemic Community Efforts to Protect Stratospheric Ozone," International Organization, 46/1 (Winter 1992): 193-215.
11. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, The IPCC Second Assessment Synthesis Report: Draft Summary for Policy Makers (Geneva: United Nations, 1995, also Cambridge University Press, 1996). The report notes that recent models, which take account of the cooling effect of aerosol particles in the atmosphere, predict temperature changes that fit well with empirical observations.
12. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
13. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
14. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
15. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
16. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
17. See Ross Gelbspan, The Heat is On (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapters 3 and 5; Karen T. Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994); Ozone Action, Distorting the Debate: A Case Study of Corporate Greenwashing (Washington: D.C.: Ozone Action, 1996). More generally, see Lynton K. Caldwell, Between Two Worlds: Science, the Environmental Movement, and Policy Choice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).
18. Oye and Maxwell [op. cit.] argue that in a Stiglerian situation, where the costs of regulation are diffused and benefits are concentrated, those who benefit have a greater incentive to organize in support of the regulation. The opposite should hold in Olsonian situations, where the benefits of regulation are diffuse but the costs are concentrated. See George Stigler, "The Economic Theory of Regulation,Bell Journal of Economics, 2 (1971): 3-21; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).
19. Oye and Maxwell [op. cit.] argue that in a Stiglerian situation, where the costs of regulation are diffused and benefits are concentrated, those who benefit have a greater incentive to organize in support of the regulation. The opposite should hold in Olsonian situations, where the benefits of regulation are diffuse but the costs are concentrated. See George Stigler, "The Economic Theory of Regulation,Bell Journal of Economics, 2 (1971): 3-21; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).
20. Oye and Maxwell [op. cit.] argue that in a Stiglerian situation, where the costs of regulation are diffused and benefits are concentrated, those who benefit have a greater incentive to organize in support of the regulation. The opposite should hold in Olsonian situations, where the benefits of regulation are diffuse but the costs are concentrated. See George Stigler, "The Economic Theory of Regulation,Bell Journal of Economics, 2 (1971): 3-21; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).
21. The Dupont estimate is cited in James H. Maxwell and Sanford L. Weiner, "The Political Economy of the CFC Phaseout: Industry's Role in the Establishment of the International Regulatory Regime," MIT Working Paper, September 1993. Kevin Fay's estimate is in his Statement to U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Health and the Environment, Ozone Layer Depletion Hearings, March 9, 1987, p. 180. For other estimates, see The Department of Economic and Social Affairs, "Protection of the Ozone Layer - Some Economic and Social Implications of a Possible Ban on the Use of Fluorocarbons," in Asit K. Biswas, ed., The Ozone Layer (Oxford: Pergamon, 1983), pp. 141-67.
22. The Dupont estimate is cited in James H. Maxwell and Sanford L. Weiner, "The Political Economy of the CFC Phaseout: Industry's Role in the Establishment of the International Regulatory Regime," MIT Working Paper, September 1993. Kevin Fay's estimate is in his Statement to U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Health and the Environment, Ozone Layer Depletion Hearings, March 9, 1987, p. 180. For other estimates, see The Department of Economic and Social Affairs, "Protection of the Ozone Layer - Some Economic and Social Implications of a Possible Ban on the Use of Fluorocarbons," in Asit K. Biswas, ed., The Ozone Layer (Oxford: Pergamon, 1983), pp. 141-67.
23. The Dupont estimate is cited in James H. Maxwell and Sanford L. Weiner, "The Political Economy of the CFC Phaseout: Industry's Role in the Establishment of the International Regulatory Regime," MIT Working Paper, September 1993. Kevin Fay's estimate is in his Statement to U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Health and the Environment, Ozone Layer Depletion Hearings, March 9, 1987, p. 180. For other estimates, see The Department of Economic and Social Affairs, "Protection of the Ozone Layer - Some Economic and Social Implications of a Possible Ban on the Use of Fluorocarbons," in Asit K. Biswas, ed., The Ozone Layer (Oxford: Pergamon, 1983), pp. 141-67.
24. The Economist, April 1, 1995, p. 11.
25. U.S. Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1990), pp. 214-223
26. The results from a range of models are summarized in the Statement of Marc Chupka, Acting Assistant Secretary for Policy and International Affairs, U.S. Department of Energy, to the Subcommittee on Energy and Power, Committee of Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, Hearings on Climate Change, June 19, 1996.
27. For a discussion of these issues, see William R. Cline, The Economics of Global Warming (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1992)
28. The better known examples are U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse Gasses, OTA-0-482 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1991) and National Academy of Sciences, Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming (Washington, D.C.: NAS Press, 1991).
29. The better known examples are U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse Gasses, OTA-0-482 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1991) and National Academy of Sciences, Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming (Washington, D.C.: NAS Press, 1991).
30. For more background information on the industry, see Richard E. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); Parson, op. cit.
31. For more background information on the industry, see Richard E. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); Parson, op. cit.
32. A recent report by Mark Mansley/The Delphi Group concludes that the longtermfinancial risks from climate change to oil and coal related sectors are significant and not yet adequately anticipated or discounted by financial markets. Mark Mansley/The Delphi Group, Long-Term Financial Risks to the Carbon Fuel Industry from Climate Change (London: The Delphi Group, 1995)
33. The prospects for renewables are discussed in Joseph J. Romm and Charles B. Curtis "Mideast Oil Forever?" The Atlantic Monthly (April 1996), pp. 57-74; Shell International, The Evolution of the World's Energy System 1860-2060 (London: Shell International, 1994); NRDC/Tellus Institute America's Energy Choices (Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists, 1991).
34. The prospects for renewables are discussed in Joseph J. Romm and Charles B. Curtis "Mideast Oil Forever?" The Atlantic Monthly (April 1996), pp. 57-74; Shell International, The Evolution of the World's Energy System 1860-2060 (London: Shell International, 1994); NRDC/Tellus Institute America's Energy Choices (Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists, 1991).
35. The prospects for renewables are discussed in Joseph J. Romm and Charles B. Curtis "Mideast Oil Forever?" The Atlantic Monthly (April 1996), pp. 57-74; Shell International, The Evolution of the World's Energy System 1860-2060 (London: Shell International, 1994); NRDC/Tellus Institute America's Energy Choices (Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists, 1991).
36. These impacts are summarized in Kenneth M. Strzepek and Joel B. Smith, eds., As Climate Changes: International Impacts and Implications, on behalf of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
37. The impact on the banking and insurance industries is discussed in more detail in Jeremy Leggett, ed., Climate Change and the Financial Sector (Munich: Gerling Akademie Verlag, 1996) and in Mark Mansley/The Delphi Group, op. cit.
38. The impact on the banking and insurance industries is discussed in more detail in Jeremy Leggett, ed., Climate Change and the Financial Sector (Munich: Gerling Akademie Verlag, 1996) and in Mark Mansley/The Delphi Group, op. cit.
39. Global Climate Coalition press release, February 9, 1995.
40. The Climate Council is quite secretive about its activities and clients. This information is drawn from various issues of the ECO newsletter and from Gelbspan, op. cit.
41. Scott Sklar, Executive Director, Solar Energy Industries Association, address to the conference Evolving Technologies, U.S. Business and the World Economy in the 21st Century, Washington, D.C., June 18, 1996. Text published by Solar Energy Industries Association.
42. Information on the ICCP is based upon the author's interview with Kevin Fay, ICCP's publications and press releases, and Gelbspan, op. cit., pp. 102-106 (draft).
43. For information on the WBCSD and JI see Jim Leslie (Transalta Corporation), "Joint Implementation: Creating a New Market," presented to the Wall Street Journal/Handlesblatt Energy Congress on International Energy Markets, Vienna, September 13, 1995; Nazli Choucri (MIT), "Activities Implemented Jointly: A New Synthesis of Issues, Realities, and Contentions," prepared for UNEP, Earth Council Advisory Group, October, 1996; the WBCSD Web site at http://mcc29a5a.unige.ch/wbcsd/about/about.htm
44. For information on the WBCSD and JI see Jim Leslie (Transalta Corporation), "Joint Implementation: Creating a New Market," presented to the Wall Street Journal/Handlesblatt Energy Congress on International Energy Markets, Vienna, September 13, 1995; Nazli Choucri (MIT), "Activities Implemented Jointly: A New Synthesis of Issues, Realities, and Contentions," prepared for UNEP, Earth Council Advisory Group, October, 1996; the WBCSD Web site at http://mcc29a5a.unige.ch/wbcsd/about/about.htm
45. See the "Business and Industry Statement to the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change," Berlin, March 30, 1995.
46. See Statement by the ICC to the UNFCC COP-1, Berlin, March 1995. Author interview with Denise O'Brien, Director, Environmental Affairs, ICC, Paris.
47. The contentious debate over the power of business in society has turned on the extent of corporate unity and cohesiveness. Researchers from a Marxist and power-elite perspective emphasize the ability of business to act cohesively in the political arena. Examples include G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976) and Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1977). The pluralist perspective, in contrast, stresses the conflicts and divisions among business sectors, so that business sectors compete among themselves and with other social groups for political influence. Examples include Edwin Epstein, The Corporation in American Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969) and Barry M. Mitnick, "Political Contestability," in B. M. Mitnick, ed., Corporate Political Agency (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 11-66.
48. The contentious debate over the power of business in society has turned on the extent of corporate unity and cohesiveness. Researchers from a Marxist and power-elite perspective emphasize the ability of business to act cohesively in the political arena. Examples include G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976) and Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1977). The pluralist perspective, in contrast, stresses the conflicts and divisions among business sectors, so that business sectors compete among themselves and with other social groups for political influence. Examples include Edwin Epstein, The Corporation in American Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969) and Barry M. Mitnick, "Political Contestability," in B. M. Mitnick, ed., Corporate Political Agency (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 11-66.
49. The contentious debate over the power of business in society has turned on the extent of corporate unity and cohesiveness. Researchers from a Marxist and power-elite perspective emphasize the ability of business to act cohesively in the political arena. Examples include G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976) and Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1977). The pluralist perspective, in contrast, stresses the conflicts and divisions among business sectors, so that business sectors compete among themselves and with other social groups for political influence. Examples include Edwin Epstein, The Corporation in American Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969) and Barry M. Mitnick, "Political Contestability," in B. M. Mitnick, ed., Corporate Political Agency (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 11-66.
50. The contentious debate over the power of business in society has turned on the extent of corporate unity and cohesiveness. Researchers from a Marxist and power-elite perspective emphasize the ability of business to act cohesively in the political arena. Examples include G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976) and Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1977). The pluralist perspective, in contrast, stresses the conflicts and divisions among business sectors, so that business sectors compete among themselves and with other social groups for political influence. Examples include Edwin Epstein, The Corporation in American Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969) and Barry M. Mitnick, "Political Contestability," in B. M. Mitnick, ed., Corporate Political Agency (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 11-66.
51. For a detailed review, see David J. Vogel, "The Study of Business and Politics," California Management Review, 38/3 (Spring 1996): 146-165.
52. Interviews with personnel in the U.S. Department of Energy, EPA, and White House staff clearly revealed the assumption that broad corporate assent would be needed for an agreement to be "politically feasible." It was frequently argued that only large businesses possess the financial, technical, and organizational resources to address climate change. This discourse is analyzed and critiqued in David L. Levy, "Contesting the Terrain of Environmental Management: A Critical Examination of an Emerging Discipline," paper presented at Academy of Management, 1996 Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio.
53. The carbon tax proposal is discussed in detail in Tony Ikwue and James Skea "Business and the Genesis of the European Community Carbon Tax Proposal," Business Strategy and the Environment, 3/4 (1994): 1-10
54. Parson, op. cit., pp. 40-42; Rowlands, op. cit., pp. 110-111
55. Parson, op. cit., pp. 40-42; Rowlands, op. cit., pp. 110-111
56. Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit.; Oye and Maxwell, op. cit.
57. Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit.; Oye and Maxwell, op. cit.
58. Information is from interviews with Scott Sklar, president of Solar Energy Industries Association and Paul Maycock, president of PV Energy Systems, Virginia. Also see Shell International, op. cit., and various issues of the Solar Industry Journal.
59. Sources are Shell International, op. cit., and data supplied by Paul Maycock, PV Energy Systems, Virginia. Nevertheless, interest is growing rapidly in PV, and four new plants to produce PV panels were announced in 1996 (Solar Energy Industries Association, Press Release, April 24 1996). PV is currently viable for niche markets, such as distributed locations, particularly in LDCs, where it saves the cost of transmission lines.
60. Interview with Scott Sklar, Solar Energy Industries Association.
61. Romm and Curtis, op. cit..
62. See C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel, "The Core Competence of the Corporation," Harvard Business Review, 68 (May/June 1990): 79-93; George Stalk, Philip Evans, and Lawrence E. Shulman, "Competing on Capabilities: The New Rules of Corporate Strategy," Harvard Business Review, 70/2 (March/April 1992): 57-69
63. See C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel, "The Core Competence of the Corporation," Harvard Business Review, 68 (May/June 1990): 79-93; George Stalk, Philip Evans, and Lawrence E. Shulman, "Competing on Capabilities: The New Rules of Corporate Strategy," Harvard Business Review, 70/2 (March/April 1992): 57-69
64. Information supplied by Paul Maycock, PV Energy Systems.
65. Cited in Sandra Rothenberg and James Maxwell "Industrial Response to the Banning of CFCs," Working Paper, MIT Sloan School of Management, 1995.
66. Elizabeth Cook of the World Resources Institute has attributed the relatively smooth phase-out of CFCs in the U.S. to the combination of a stiff tax, a flexible permit trading system, and a firm phase-out date. See Elizabeth Cook, Marking a Milestone in Ozone Protection: Learning from the CFC Phase-Out (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1996).
67. Rothenberg and Maxwell, op. cit., explain the difference between the rapid reaction of the electronics industry and the slower response of the auto industry in terms of the different industry cultures, attitudes toward regulation, and technological progressiveness.
68. NRDC/Tellus Institute, America's Energy Choices, 1991, pp. 62-64.
69. Examples of the instrumentalist perspective include G. William Domhoff, The Power Elite and the State: How Policy is Made in America (New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990) and Ralph Milliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1969). The structuralist position is elaborated in Lindblom, op. cit., and Nicholas Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978).
70. Examples of the instrumentalist perspective include G. William Domhoff, The Power Elite and the State: How Policy is Made in America (New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990) and Ralph Milliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1969). The structuralist position is elaborated in Lindblom, op. cit., and Nicholas Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978).
71. Examples of the instrumentalist perspective include G. William Domhoff, The Power Elite and the State: How Policy is Made in America (New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990) and Ralph Milliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1969). The structuralist position is elaborated in Lindblom, op. cit., and Nicholas Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978).
72. Examples of the instrumentalist perspective include G. William Domhoff, The Power Elite and the State: How Policy is Made in America (New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990) and Ralph Milliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1969). The structuralist position is elaborated in Lindblom, op. cit., and Nicholas Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978).
73. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
74. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
75. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
76. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
77. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
78. A more comprehensive discussion of country interests can be found in Benedick, op. cit., Biswas, op. cit., Markus Jachtenfuchs, "The European Community and the Protection of the Ozone Layer," Journal of Common Market Studies, 28/3 (March 1990); Parson, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.; Maxwell and Weiner, op. cit. Primary sources include various editions of ECO and Earth Negotiations Bulletin.
79. For more details on the differences between the European and U.S. positions, see Jachtenfuchs, op. cit.; Oye and Maxwell, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.
80. For more details on the differences between the European and U.S. positions, see Jachtenfuchs, op. cit.; Oye and Maxwell, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.
81. For more details on the differences between the European and U.S. positions, see Jachtenfuchs, op. cit.; Oye and Maxwell, op. cit.; Rowlands, op. cit.
82. Porter and Brown, op. cit., p. 76.
83. Michael Grubb, "The Greenhouse Effect: Negotiating Targets," International Affairs, 66/1 (1990): 67-89. Also, see Michael Jefferson "Carbon Dioxide Emissions 1990-1995," World Energy Council Journal (July 1996).
84. Michael Grubb, "The Greenhouse Effect: Negotiating Targets," International Affairs, 66/1 (1990): 67-89. Also, see Michael Jefferson "Carbon Dioxide Emissions 1990-1995," World Energy Council Journal (July 1996).
85. Rowlands, op. cit., p. 130.
86. Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, "Britain and the International Panel on Climate Change: The Impacts of Scientific Advice on Global Warming part II: The Domestic Story of the British Response to Climate Change," Environmental Politics, 4/2 (1995): 175-196.
87. These industries are concentrated and politically powerful. U.S. industry has sent the largest contingent of lobbyists and observers to the U.N. negotiations, numbering around 35 to 40 people at each major session.
88. Lester Brown et al., State of the World 1996 (New York, NY: Norton/Worldwatch Institute, 1996), p. 30
89. Statement by Timothy E. Wirth, Undersecretary for Global Affairs, on behalf of the United States of America, at Convention on Climate Change, Second Conference of the Parties, July 17, 1996 (Geneva, Switzerland: United States Mission, Office of Public Affairs).