The British Army in Northern Ireland 1969-1972: From Policing to Counter-Terror

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 1-24

  Kennedy‐Pipe, Caroline ^a   McInnes, Colin ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031482661     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402399708437676     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. C.E. Callwell, Small Wars - Their Principles and Practice (London 1896). For a list of conflicts involving the British Army between 1945 and 1969, see Henry Stanhope, The Soldiers; An Anatomy of the British Army (London: Hamish Hamilton 1979) pp.343-7. See also Michael Dewar, Brush Fire Wars: Minor Campaigns of the British Army since 1945 (London: Robert Hale 1987 rev. ed.) pp.186-7.
2. C.E. Callwell, Small Wars - Their Principles and Practice (London 1896). For a list of conflicts involving the British Army between 1945 and 1969, see Henry Stanhope, The Soldiers; An Anatomy of the British Army (London: Hamish Hamilton 1979) pp.343-7. See also Michael Dewar, Brush Fire Wars: Minor Campaigns of the British Army since 1945 (London: Robert Hale 1987 rev. ed.) pp.186-7.
3. C.E. Callwell, Small Wars - Their Principles and Practice (London 1896). For a list of conflicts involving the British Army between 1945 and 1969, see Henry Stanhope, The Soldiers; An Anatomy of the British Army (London: Hamish Hamilton 1979) pp.343-7. See also Michael Dewar, Brush Fire Wars: Minor Campaigns of the British Army since 1945 (London: Robert Hale 1987 rev. ed.) pp.186-7.
4. John Pimlott, 'The British Army' in Ian F.W Beckett, and John Pimlott (eds.) Armed Forces and Modern Counter Insurgency (London: Croom Helm 1985) pp.16-24. Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counter Insurgency 1919-60 (London: Macmillan 1990) and British Counter-Insurgency in the Post-Imperial Era (Manchester UP 1995).
5. John Pimlott, 'The British Army' in Ian F.W Beckett, and John Pimlott (eds.) Armed Forces and Modern Counter Insurgency (London: Croom Helm 1985) pp.16-24. Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counter Insurgency 1919-60 (London: Macmillan 1990) and British Counter-Insurgency in the Post-Imperial Era (Manchester UP 1995).
6. John Pimlott, 'The British Army' in Ian F.W Beckett, and John Pimlott (eds.) Armed Forces and Modern Counter Insurgency (London: Croom Helm 1985) pp.16-24. Thomas R. Mockaitis, British Counter Insurgency 1919-60 (London: Macmillan 1990) and British Counter-Insurgency in the Post-Imperial Era (Manchester UP 1995).
7. Brian Holden Reid, 'Is there a British Military 'Philosophy?' in Maj.-Gen. J.J.G. Mackenzie and Brian Holden Reid (eds.) Central Region vs Out-of-Area; Future Commitments (London: Tri-Service Press 1990) pp.1-3.
8. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
9. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
10. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
11. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
12. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
13. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
14. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
15. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
16. Though this does not always mean that the Army was always sensitive to local conditions, nor that it always reacted flexibly and in appropriate manner, as was seen in Palestine, 1945-47. See David Charters, The British Army and the Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945-47 (London: Macmillan 1989) Stephen Peter Rosen, 'Military Effectiveness; why society matters'; Alastair lain Johnston, 'Thinking about Strategic culture', and Elizabeth Kier, 'Culture and Military Doctrine; France Between the Wars.' International Security 19/4 (1995) pp.5-93; Carl G Jacobsen (ed.) Strategic Power USA/USSR (London: Macmillan 1990); David Campbell, Writing Security; United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester UP 1992); Desmond Ball, 'Strategic Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region' Security Studies 3/1 (1993) pp.44-74; Colin S. Gray, Nuclear Strategy and National Style (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986); Ken Booth, Strategy and Ethnocentrism (London: Croom Helm 1979).
17. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
18. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
19. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
20. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
21. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
22. Capt. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The British Way in Warfare (London Penguin 1932). See Michael Howard, 'The British Way in Warfare; A Reappraisal' in Michael Howard (ed.) The Causes of Wars (London: Counterpoint 1983) pp.189-207; Brian Bond, Liddell Hart; A Study of His Military Thought (London: Cassell 1977); Hew Strachan, 'The British Way in Warfare' in David Chandler and Ian Beckett (eds.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.417-34; David French, The British Way in Warfare 1688-2000 (London: Unwin Hyman 1990); Lawrence Freedman 'Alliance and the British Way in Warfare', Review of International Studies 21/2 (1995) pp.145-58.
23. R. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency; experiences from Malaya to Vietnam (London 1966) esp, pp.50-2. See also Brian Holden Reid, 'The Experience of the British Army in Northern Ireland' in Y. Alexander and Alan O'Day (eds) Ireland's Terrorist Dilemma (Martinas Nijhoff 1986).
24. R. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency; experiences from Malaya to Vietnam (London 1966) esp, pp.50-2. See also Brian Holden Reid, 'The Experience of the British Army in Northern Ireland' in Y. Alexander and Alan O'Day (eds) Ireland's Terrorist Dilemma (Martinas Nijhoff 1986).
25. Robert Kee, The Most Distressful Country, Vol.1. The Green Flag (London: Quartet Books 1976).
26. The Government of Ireland Act, 1920, HC, Vol.123, Dec. 1919.
27. HC, Vol.127 cols 1333-1, 31 March 1920.
28. Bryan A Follis, A State under Siege; The Establishment of Northern Ireland 1920-1925 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1995).
29. Richard Rose, Governing Without Consensus An Irish Perspective (Boston: Beacon Press 1971) p.443.
30. Follis (note 10).
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ian McCabe, A Diplomatic History of Ireland, 1948-1949 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press 1991) p.137.
34. Richard Rose, Northern Ireland; A Time of Choice (London: Macmillan, 976) p.21.
35. M.L.R. Smith, Fighting for Ireland? The Military Strategy of the Irish Republican Movement (London: Routledge 1995); Tim Pat Coogan, The IRA (London: HarperCollins 1996).
36. M.L.R. Smith, Fighting for Ireland? The Military Strategy of the Irish Republican Movement (London: Routledge 1995); Tim Pat Coogan, The IRA (London: HarperCollins 1996).
37. See Michael Farrell, Northern Ireland: The Orange State (London: Pluto Press 1980).
38. Lord Cameron's Report, Disturbances in Northern Ireland (Belfast: HMSO, Cmnd. 532, 1969).
39. See The Secretary of State for the Home Department (Mr James Callaghan) 21 April 1969 col.32, Official Reports, Fifth Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons 1968-69, Vol. 782, 21 April to 2 May 1969.
40. James Callaghan, A House Divided; The Dilemma of Northern Ireland (London: Collins 1973).
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. The GOC, Lt.-Gen. Sir Ian Freeland had been appointed in late 1968 and had been a commander in Cyprus during the start of the insurgency and had also commanded forces in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
46. The Sunday Times Insight Team, Ulster (London: Andre Deutsch 1972) pp.108-9.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid. p.112.
49. Hunt Report on Police in Northern Ireland, Cmd 535 (Belfast: HMSO 1969).
50. Robin Evelagh, Peace-Keeping in a Democratic Society The Lessons of Northern Ireland (London: Hurst 1978).
51. See D.G. Boyce, '"Normal Policing"; Public Order in Northern Ireland since Partition', Eire-Ireland 14 (1979) pp.35-52.
52. Desmond Hamill, Pig in the Middle; The Army in Northern Ireland 1969-84 (London: Methuen 1985) p.23.
53. See Robert Moss, Urban Guerrillas (London: Temple Smith 1972) p.103.
54. The residents of the Bogside and the Falls Road told a delegation of the Irish Parliamentary Labour Party who visited in October that the Army was the only protection they could get. Dail Eireann Vol. 241, 22 Oct. 1969, Col.1426.
55. See Miss Devlin to The Secretary of State, 19 Dec. 1969, cols. 449-50 in Official Report Fifth Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 1969-70, vol.793, 8 Dec.-19 Dec. 1969, Col.338.
56. Michael J. Cunningham, British Government Policy in Northern Ireland, 1969-89: Its Nature and Execution (Manchester UP 1991) p.25.
57. See for example the debate on Northern Ireland in the House of Commons on 7 April 1970, Col 262 in Official Report, Fifth Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 1969-70, Vol.799, 6-17 April, 1970.
58. Ibid.
59. Moss (note 34) p.100.
60. This was the subject of debate in the House of Commons. See 28 Oct. 1970, Col 219 in Official Report Fifth Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 1970-71, Vol.805, 27 Oct.-6 Nov. 1970.
61. Ibid.
62. 7 April 1970, col. 269-70 in Official Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 1969-70. Vol.799, 7 April 1970.
63. See 7 April 1970, Col.272, and 273 in Official Report Fifth Series, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 1970-71 Vol.805, 27 Oct.-6 Nov.
64. Sean MacStiofain, Memoirs of a Revolutionary (London: Cremonesi 1975) pp.74-97.
65. Evelagh (note 31) pp.58-9.
66. Ibid.
67. J.J. Lee, Ireland 1912-1985 (Cambridge: CUP 1989) p.434.
68. Hamill (note 33) p.44.
69. M. McGuire, To Take Arms p.95.
70. Callaghan (note 21).
71. Sunday Times Insight Team (note 27).
72. See The Compton Report, Report of the Enquiry into Allegations against the Security Forces of Physical Brutality in Northern Ireland, Arising out of the Events of 9 Aug. 1971 (Cmnd 4823, London: Nov. 1971). See also The Parker Report, Cmnd 4901 (London HMSO 1972).
73. See The Compton Report, Report of the Enquiry into Allegations against the Security Forces of Physical Brutality in Northern Ireland, Arising out of the Events of 9 Aug. 1971 (Cmnd 4823, London: Nov. 1971). See also The Parker Report, Cmnd 4901 (London HMSO 1972).
74. Ibid.
75. Lt.-Col. Michael Dewar, The British Army in Northern Ireland (London: Arms & Armour Press 1985) p.219.
76. Evelagh (note 31).
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid. pp.149-51.
79. Ibid. pp.48-9.
80. Cunningham (note 37) p.47.
81. Hamill (note 33) pp.113-17.
82. Dail Eireann, Vol. 241, 22 Oct. 1969, Col.1402.
83. Ibid. Col.1403.
84. David Barzilay, The British Army in Ulster, Vol.1 (Belfast: Century Books 1973).
85. For political reasons during this period the campaign was couched by the British Government in terms of 'internal security' rather than 'counter-terrorism'. It is also interesting to note that perhaps in part because of this, the Army tended to see Northern Ireland as a different category of problem to that of counter-insurgency overseas.