The war against feminism in the name of the almighty: Making sense of gender and Muslim fundamentalism

New Left Review

Volumn , Issue 224, 1997, Pages 89-110

  Afary, Janet ^a  

^a NONE

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References (90)

1. A version of this article was presented at the 1997 annual meeting of the American Historical Association in New York. I am grateful for many helpful comments and suggestions by Kevin Anderson, Robin Blackburn, Sondra Hale, Valentine Moghadam, Claire Moses, Rayna Rapp, and especially Nikki Keddie on various drafts ofthis article.
2. For the first view, see Linda J. Nicholson, ed., Feminism/Postmodernism, London 1990, pp. 1-16, and Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott, eds, Feminists Theorize the Political, London 1992; for thesecond view, see Nancy C.M. Hartsock, 'Foucault on Power: A theory for Women?', in Nicholson, Feminism/Postmodernism, pp. 157-75, and Caroline Ramazanoglu, ed., Up Against Foucault, London 1993.
3. For the first view, see Linda J. Nicholson, ed., Feminism/Postmodernism, London 1990, pp. 1-16, and Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott, eds, Feminists Theorize the Political, London 1992; for thesecond view, see Nancy C.M. Hartsock, 'Foucault on Power: A theory for Women?', in Nicholson, Feminism/Postmodernism, pp. 157-75, and Caroline Ramazanoglu, ed., Up Against Foucault, London 1993.
4. For the first view, see Linda J. Nicholson, ed., Feminism/Postmodernism, London 1990, pp. 1-16, and Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott, eds, Feminists Theorize the Political, London 1992; for thesecond view, see Nancy C.M. Hartsock, 'Foucault on Power: A theory for Women?', in Nicholson, Feminism/Postmodernism, pp. 157-75, and Caroline Ramazanoglu, ed., Up Against Foucault, London 1993.
5. For the first view, see Linda J. Nicholson, ed., Feminism/Postmodernism, London 1990, pp. 1-16, and Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott, eds, Feminists Theorize the Political, London 1992; for thesecond view, see Nancy C.M. Hartsock, 'Foucault on Power: A theory for Women?', in Nicholson, Feminism/Postmodernism, pp. 157-75, and Caroline Ramazanoglu, ed., Up Against Foucault, London 1993.
6. I would like to stress that these three categories are not mutually exclusive, and that some authors have utilized two or all three approaches. My classification here is based on the author's emphases.
7. See Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds, The Fundamentalism Project: Fundamentals Observed, Vol. I, Chicago 1991, pp. ix-x. Bernard Lewis prefers the term 'fundamentalism' because use of the terms 'Islamic' or 'Islamist' to identify such movements implies that 'this is what the Islamic religion and civilization is about.' See 'Un entretien avec Bernard Lewis', Le Monde, 16 November 1993; see also Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East, New Haven 1988, pp. 3-4, and Nikki Keddie's forthcoming essay 'Women, Gender, and Fundamentalism', which she kindly shared with me.
8. See Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds, The Fundamentalism Project: Fundamentals Observed, Vol. I, Chicago 1991, pp. ix-x. Bernard Lewis prefers the term 'fundamentalism' because use of the terms 'Islamic' or 'Islamist' to identify such movements implies that 'this is what the Islamic religion and civilization is about.' See 'Un entretien avec Bernard Lewis', Le Monde, 16 November 1993; see also Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East, New Haven 1988, pp. 3-4, and Nikki Keddie's forthcoming essay 'Women, Gender, and Fundamentalism', which she kindly shared with me.
9. See Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds, The Fundamentalism Project: Fundamentals Observed, Vol. I, Chicago 1991, pp. ix-x. Bernard Lewis prefers the term 'fundamentalism' because use of the terms 'Islamic' or 'Islamist' to identify such movements implies that 'this is what the Islamic religion and civilization is about.' See 'Un entretien avec Bernard Lewis', Le Monde, 16 November 1993; see also Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East, New Haven 1988, pp. 3-4, and Nikki Keddie's forthcoming essay 'Women, Gender, and Fundamentalism', which she kindly shared with me.
10. See Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds, The Fundamentalism Project: Fundamentals Observed, Vol. I, Chicago 1991, pp. ix-x. Bernard Lewis prefers the term 'fundamentalism' because use of the terms 'Islamic' or 'Islamist' to identify such movements implies that 'this is what the Islamic religion and civilization is about.' See 'Un entretien avec Bernard Lewis', Le Monde, 16 November 1993; see also Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East, New Haven 1988, pp. 3-4, and Nikki Keddie's forthcoming essay 'Women, Gender, and Fundamentalism', which she kindly shared with me.
11. See Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York 1993, p. 375-7. See also John Esposito, 'Secular Bias and Islamic Revivalism', Chronicle of Higher Education, 26 May 1993, p. A 44. I have used the terms 'fundamentalism' and 'Islamism' for the conservative movements, but not the term 'Islamic', leaving space for other more democratic interpretations of Islam to be discussed later.
12. See Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York 1993, p. 375-7. See also John Esposito, 'Secular Bias and Islamic Revivalism', Chronicle of Higher Education, 26 May 1993, p. A 44. I have used the terms 'fundamentalism' and 'Islamism' for the conservative movements, but not the term 'Islamic', leaving space for other more democratic interpretations of Islam to be discussed later.
13. For a summary of these policies, see Nayereh Tohidi, 'Gender and Islamic Fundamentalism: Feminist Politics in Iran', in C. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, eds, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, Bloomington 1991, pp. 251-65; Azadeh Kian, 'Gendered Occupation and Women's Status in Post-Revolutionary Iran', Middle East Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, July 1995, pp. 407-21. For the more recent reforms in family law, see Shahla Haeri, 'Obedience Versus Autonomy: Women and Fundamentalism in Iran and Pakistan', The Fundamentalist Project: Fundamentalisms and Society, no. 2, 1993, pp. 181-213; and N. Ramazani, 'Women in Iran: The Revolutionary Ebb and Flow', in US-Iran Review: Forum on American-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, no. 7, October 1993, pp. 8-9.
14. For a summary of these policies, see Nayereh Tohidi, 'Gender and Islamic Fundamentalism: Feminist Politics in Iran', in C. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, eds, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, Bloomington 1991, pp. 251-65; Azadeh Kian, 'Gendered Occupation and Women's Status in Post-Revolutionary Iran', Middle East Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, July 1995, pp. 407-21. For the more recent reforms in family law, see Shahla Haeri, 'Obedience Versus Autonomy: Women and Fundamentalism in Iran and Pakistan', The Fundamentalist Project: Fundamentalisms and Society, no. 2, 1993, pp. 181-213; and N. Ramazani, 'Women in Iran: The Revolutionary Ebb and Flow', in US-Iran Review: Forum on American-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, no. 7, October 1993, pp. 8-9.
15. For a summary of these policies, see Nayereh Tohidi, 'Gender and Islamic Fundamentalism: Feminist Politics in Iran', in C. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, eds, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, Bloomington 1991, pp. 251-65; Azadeh Kian, 'Gendered Occupation and Women's Status in Post-Revolutionary Iran', Middle East Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, July 1995, pp. 407-21. For the more recent reforms in family law, see Shahla Haeri, 'Obedience Versus Autonomy: Women and Fundamentalism in Iran and Pakistan', The Fundamentalist Project: Fundamentalisms and Society, no. 2, 1993, pp. 181-213; and N. Ramazani, 'Women in Iran: The Revolutionary Ebb and Flow', in US-Iran Review: Forum on American-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, no. 7, October 1993, pp. 8-9.
16. For a summary of these policies, see Nayereh Tohidi, 'Gender and Islamic Fundamentalism: Feminist Politics in Iran', in C. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, eds, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, Bloomington 1991, pp. 251-65; Azadeh Kian, 'Gendered Occupation and Women's Status in Post-Revolutionary Iran', Middle East Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, July 1995, pp. 407-21. For the more recent reforms in family law, see Shahla Haeri, 'Obedience Versus Autonomy: Women and Fundamentalism in Iran and Pakistan', The Fundamentalist Project: Fundamentalisms and Society, no. 2, 1993, pp. 181-213; and N. Ramazani, 'Women in Iran: The Revolutionary Ebb and Flow', in US-Iran Review: Forum on American-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, no. 7, October 1993, pp. 8-9.
17. On contraceptive methods in pre-modern Arab societies, see B.F. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, Cambridge 1989. On the debates at the Cairo conference, see 'Vatican Seeks Islamic Allies in UN Population Dispute', New York Times, 18 August 1994, p. 1.
18. On contraceptive methods in pre-modern Arab societies, see B.F. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, Cambridge 1989. On the debates at the Cairo conference, see 'Vatican Seeks Islamic Allies in UN Population Dispute', New York Times, 18 August 1994, p. 1.
19. See Ali A. Abbas, 'The National Islamic Front and the Politics of Education', MERIP, September-October 1991, pp. 23-5; Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML), 6 July 1992; Manahil A. Salam, 'Islamic Fundamentalist Rule is a Setback to Women's Progress in the Sudan', paper presented at the Purdue Women's Studies Symposium, Fall 1995.
20. See Ali A. Abbas, 'The National Islamic Front and the Politics of Education', MERIP, September-October 1991, pp. 23-5; Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML), 6 July 1992; Manahil A. Salam, 'Islamic Fundamentalist Rule is a Setback to Women's Progress in the Sudan', paper presented at the Purdue Women's Studies Symposium, Fall 1995.
21. See Ali A. Abbas, 'The National Islamic Front and the Politics of Education', MERIP, September-October 1991, pp. 23-5; Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML), 6 July 1992; Manahil A. Salam, 'Islamic Fundamentalist Rule is a Setback to Women's Progress in the Sudan', paper presented at the Purdue Women's Studies Symposium, Fall 1995.
22. See Elaine Sciolino, 'The Many Faces of Islamic Law', New York Times, 13 October 1996, p. 4. Fred Halliday, 'Kabul's Patriarchy with Guns', The Nation, 11 November 1996, pp. 19-22. For a discussion of the Mujahidin's opposition to female education, see Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, Boulder 1993, pp. 207-47.
23. See Elaine Sciolino, 'The Many Faces of Islamic Law', New York Times, 13 October 1996, p. 4. Fred Halliday, 'Kabul's Patriarchy with Guns', The Nation, 11 November 1996, pp. 19-22. For a discussion of the Mujahidin's opposition to female education, see Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, Boulder 1993, pp. 207-47.
24. See Elaine Sciolino, 'The Many Faces of Islamic Law', New York Times, 13 October 1996, p. 4. Fred Halliday, 'Kabul's Patriarchy with Guns', The Nation, 11 November 1996, pp. 19-22. For a discussion of the Mujahidin's opposition to female education, see Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, Boulder 1993, pp. 207-47.
25. See 'Algeria Again at the Crossroads', Middle East International, 24 January 1992, p. 3; Le nouvel Observateur, 15 January 1992; Anis, 'Un homosexuel algérien à Paris', Le Monde, 22 June 1996, p. 15; Karima Bennoune, 'Algerian Women Confront Fundamentalism', Monthly Review, vol. 46, no. 4, November 1994, pp. 26-39.
26. See 'Algeria Again at the Crossroads', Middle East International, 24 January 1992, p. 3; Le nouvel Observateur, 15 January 1992; Anis, 'Un homosexuel algérien à Paris', Le Monde, 22 June 1996, p. 15; Karima Bennoune, 'Algerian Women Confront Fundamentalism', Monthly Review, vol. 46, no. 4, November 1994, pp. 26-39.
27. See 'Algeria Again at the Crossroads', Middle East International, 24 January 1992, p. 3; Le nouvel Observateur, 15 January 1992; Anis, 'Un homosexuel algérien à Paris', Le Monde, 22 June 1996, p. 15; Karima Bennoune, 'Algerian Women Confront Fundamentalism', Monthly Review, vol. 46, no. 4, November 1994, pp. 26-39.
28. See 'Algeria Again at the Crossroads', Middle East International, 24 January 1992, p. 3; Le nouvel Observateur, 15 January 1992; Anis, 'Un homosexuel algérien à Paris', Le Monde, 22 June 1996, p. 15; Karima Bennoune, 'Algerian Women Confront Fundamentalism', Monthly Review, vol. 46, no. 4, November 1994, pp. 26-39.
29. Maznah Mohamad, 'Islam, the Secular State and Muslim Women in Malaysia', WLUML, Dossier 5/6, 1989, pp. 13-19.
30. See 'Man sukut nakhvaham kard', Kayban (London), 6 January 1993; Naila Kabeer, 'The Quest for National Identity: Women, Islam and the State of Bangladesh', in Deniz Kandiyoti, ed., Women, Islam and the State, Philadelphia 1991, pp. 115-143.
31. See 'Man sukut nakhvaham kard', Kayban (London), 6 January 1993; Naila Kabeer, 'The Quest for National Identity: Women, Islam and the State of Bangladesh', in Deniz Kandiyoti, ed., Women, Islam and the State, Philadelphia 1991, pp. 115-143.
32. Al-Jadid, no. 2, December 1995, pp. 16-17.
33. See WLUML, 27 October 1992; 'Pakistani Crusader vs. the Mullahs', New York Times, 10 August 1992. See also Paula R. Newberg, 'The Two Benazir Bhuttos', New York Times, 11 February 1995, p. 5.
34. See WLUML, 27 October 1992; 'Pakistani Crusader vs. the Mullahs', New York Times, 10 August 1992. See also Paula R. Newberg, 'The Two Benazir Bhuttos', New York Times, 11 February 1995, p. 5.
35. See WLUML, 27 October 1992; 'Pakistani Crusader vs. the Mullahs', New York Times, 10 August 1992. See also Paula R. Newberg, 'The Two Benazir Bhuttos', New York Times, 11 February 1995, p. 5.
36. See 'Turkish Women and the Welfare Party', Middle East Report (MERIP), Spring 1996, pp. 28-32.
37. See Nukhet Sirman, 'Feminism in Turkey: A Short History', in New Perspectives on Turkey, vol. 3, no. 1, Fall 1989, pp. 1-34.
38. See Rosemary Sayigh, 'Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle', Palestine: Profile of an Occupation, London 1989; Islah Jad, 'From the Salons to the Popular Committees, Palestinian Women, 1919-1989', in Jamal R. Nassar and Roger Heacock, eds, Intifada: Palestine at the Crossroads, New York 1990; Rita Giacaman and Penny Johnson, 'Palestinian Women: Building Barricades and Breaking Barriers', in Zachary Lochman and Joel Beinin, eds, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation, Boston 1989, pp. 155-69.
39. See Rosemary Sayigh, 'Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle', Palestine: Profile of an Occupation, London 1989; Islah Jad, 'From the Salons to the Popular Committees, Palestinian Women, 1919-1989', in Jamal R. Nassar and Roger Heacock, eds, Intifada: Palestine at the Crossroads, New York 1990; Rita Giacaman and Penny Johnson, 'Palestinian Women: Building Barricades and Breaking Barriers', in Zachary Lochman and Joel Beinin, eds, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation, Boston 1989, pp. 155-69.
40. See Rosemary Sayigh, 'Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle', Palestine: Profile of an Occupation, London 1989; Islah Jad, 'From the Salons to the Popular Committees, Palestinian Women, 1919-1989', in Jamal R. Nassar and Roger Heacock, eds, Intifada: Palestine at the Crossroads, New York 1990; Rita Giacaman and Penny Johnson, 'Palestinian Women: Building Barricades and Breaking Barriers', in Zachary Lochman and Joel Beinin, eds, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation, Boston 1989, pp. 155-69.
41. This point was eloquently discussed by a long-time Palestinian activist Rabab Abdulhadi at the 1993 meeting of the Association for Middle East Women's Studies at Triangle Park, North Carolina.
42. For example, see 'For Another Kind of Morocco: An Interview with Abraham Serfaty', MERIP, November-December 1992, pp. 24-27.
43. Moghadam, Modernizing Women; Saad Eddin Ibrahim, 'Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups', International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 12, no. 4, 1980, pp. 423-53.
44. Moghadam, Modernizing Women; Saad Eddin Ibrahim, 'Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups', International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 12, no. 4, 1980, pp. 423-53.
45. See Moghadam, Modernizing Women, p. 137.
46. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society, Bloomington 1987, second edition.
47. Fatima Mernissi, Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women, New Jersey 1989, pp. 3-4.
48. Mernissi, Beyond the Veil, pp. vii-xv.
49. Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World, Wokingham 1992, p. 165.
50. Sondra Hale, 'Gender, Religious Identity, and Political Mobilization in Sudan', in V. Moghadam, ed., Identity Politics and Women, Boulder 1994, pp. 145-66.
51. 'Women Regain a Kind of Security in Islam's Embrace', New York Times, 27 December 1992.
52. Kabeer, 'The Quest for National Identity', pp. 134-5.
53. Andrea B. Hugh, 'Reshaping Personal Relations in Egypt', in The Fundamentalist Project: Fundamentalism and Society, p. 164.
54. Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, Austin 1978 (first edition, 1966).
55. See Sohrab Belidad, 'A Disputed Utopia; Islamic Economics in Revolutionary Iran', Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 36, no. 4, October 1994, p. 810.
56. Moghadam, Modernizing Women, p. 167.
57. See Julie J. Ingersoll, 'Which Tradition, Which Values? "Traditional Family Values" in American Protestant Fundamentalism', Contention, vol. 4, no. 2, Winter 1995, p. 93. See also Helen Hardacre, 'The Impact of Fundamentalisms on Women, the Family, and Interpersonal Relations', The Fundamentalism Project, pp. 129-50.
58. See Julie J. Ingersoll, 'Which Tradition, Which Values? "Traditional Family Values" in American Protestant Fundamentalism', Contention, vol. 4, no. 2, Winter 1995, p. 93. See also Helen Hardacre, 'The Impact of Fundamentalisms on Women, the Family, and Interpersonal Relations', The Fundamentalism Project, pp. 129-50.
59. Hardacre, 'The Impact of Fundamentalisms on Women,' 142.
60. The two essays by Hegland and Friedl appear in N. Keddie and B. Baron, eds, Women in Middle Eastern History, New Haven 1991. Others will be cited below.
61. D. Kandiyoti, 'Bargaining with Patriarchy', Gender and Society, vol. 2, no. 3, 1988, pp. 274-90.
62. Aihwa Ong, 'State Versus Islam: Malay Families, Women's Bodies, and the Body Politic in Malaysia', American Ethnologist, vol. 17, no. 2, May 1900, p. 269. For a recent reaction by progressive Malay women such as Sisters in Islam, see 'Blame Men, Not Allah, Islamic Feminists Say', New York Times, 10 October 1996, p. 4.
63. Aihwa Ong, 'State Versus Islam: Malay Families, Women's Bodies, and the Body Politic in Malaysia', American Ethnologist, vol. 17, no. 2, May 1900, p. 269. For a recent reaction by progressive Malay women such as Sisters in Islam, see 'Blame Men, Not Allah, Islamic Feminists Say', New York Times, 10 October 1996, p. 4.
64. Cynthia Enloe, Making Feminist Sense of International Politics: Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, Berkeley 1989, p. 55.
65. See Lama Abu Odeh, 'Post-Colonial Feminism and the Veil: Thinking the Difference', Feminist Review, no. 43, Spring 1993, pp. 26-37.
66. Bouthaina Shaaban, Both Right and Left Handed, Bloomington 1991, p. 85.
67. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, New Haven 1992, pp. 222-3.
68. Ibid., p. 225.
69. Lila Abu-Lughod, 'Movie Stars and Islamic Moralism in Egypt', Social Text, no. 42, Spring 1995, p. 53.
70. See Arlene Elowe MacLeod, 'Hegemonic Relations and Gender Resistance: The New Veiling as Accommodating Protest in Cairo', Signs, vol. 17, no. 3, Spring 1992, p. 546.
71. Ibid., p. 555.
72. Surush's writings appear regularly in the journal Kiyan. Judith Miller, who has visited the offices of Kiyan in Tehran and has interviewed scores of other progressive writers and clerics, writes that 'despite what Iran has endured, it remains a vibrant society - far more than it ever was under the Shah and more so than any of its Arab neighbours.' She suggests that an 'Islamic Reformation' may very well be part of Iran's future. See her God Has Ninety-Nine Names, New York 1996, p. 431. Arguments similar to those of Surush have also been raised by the Syrian writer Muhammed Shahrur who has been greeted enthusiastically by many secular Arab intellectuals. See Dale F. Eickelman, 'Islamic Liberalism Strikes Back', MESA Belletin, vol. 27, no. 2, December 1993, pp. 163-7.
73. Surush's writings appear regularly in the journal Kiyan. Judith Miller, who has visited the offices of Kiyan in Tehran and has interviewed scores of other progressive writers and clerics, writes that 'despite what Iran has endured, it remains a vibrant society - far more than it ever was under the Shah and more so than any of its Arab neighbours.' She suggests that an 'Islamic Reformation' may very well be part of Iran's future. See her God Has Ninety-Nine Names, New York 1996, p. 431. Arguments similar to those of Surush have also been raised by the Syrian writer Muhammed Shahrur who has been greeted enthusiastically by many secular Arab intellectuals. See Dale F. Eickelman, 'Islamic Liberalism Strikes Back', MESA Belletin, vol. 27, no. 2, December 1993, pp. 163-7.
74. Surush's writings appear regularly in the journal Kiyan. Judith Miller, who has visited the offices of Kiyan in Tehran and has interviewed scores of other progressive writers and clerics, writes that 'despite what Iran has endured, it remains a vibrant society - far more than it ever was under the Shah and more so than any of its Arab neighbours.' She suggests that an 'Islamic Reformation' may very well be part of Iran's future. See her God Has Ninety-Nine Names, New York 1996, p. 431. Arguments similar to those of Surush have also been raised by the Syrian writer Muhammed Shahrur who has been greeted enthusiastically by many secular Arab intellectuals. See Dale F. Eickelman, 'Islamic Liberalism Strikes Back', MESA Belletin, vol. 27, no. 2, December 1993, pp. 163-7.
75. I should point out that in recent months the Western media has paid much attention to the army of Mujahidin that sits on the border between Iran and Iraq, and includes many women in its officer corps. Some Western analysts have suggested that the Mujahidin represent a progressive and feminist alterative to the government of the Islamic Republic. See for instance Barry Iverson, 'Women's Army Takes on the Mullahs', The Sunday Times, 27 April 1997, p. 19. The Mujahidian are, however, highly discredited in the eyes of many Irranians - both inside and outside the country - because of their authoritarian and indeed cultist Islamist beliefs, and because they are fully maintained by Iran's arch enemy, Saddam Hussein.
76. For two recent examples see a selection of Jaggar's Feminist Politics and Human Nature in Zanan, no. 26, Mehr/Aban 1374/Fall 1995, pp. 48-51; and 'What is Feminism', in Zanan, no. 28, Farvardin 1375 Spring/1996, pp. 2-3.
77. For two recent examples see a selection of Jaggar's Feminist Politics and Human Nature in Zanan, no. 26, Mehr/Aban 1374/Fall 1995, pp. 48-51; and 'What is Feminism', in Zanan, no. 28, Farvardin 1375 Spring/1996, pp. 2-3.
78. For a discussion of the shariat and sources of the Islamic law under Shi'ism see Arthur Goldschmidt, A Concise History of the Middle East, Boulder 1983, pp. 93-9; and Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam, Chicago 1984.
79. For a discussion of the shariat and sources of the Islamic law under Shi'ism see Arthur Goldschmidt, A Concise History of the Middle East, Boulder 1983, pp. 93-9; and Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam, Chicago 1984.
80. For further discussion of this issue, see Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, pp. 41-78.
81. Goldschmidt, A Concise History of the Middle East, p. 95.
82. The Holy Qur'an, Columbus 1991, p. 979. Here and below, I have slightly modified the English translation for greater clarity.
83. Ibid., pp. 199-200.
84. See 'Man, Partner or Boss?' in Zanan, no. 2, 1992, p. 27.
85. The Holy Qur'an, p. 808.
86. See 'Women as Judges', Zanan, no. 4, Ordibehest 1371/Spring 1992, pp. 20-26, and Zanan, no. 5, Khordad & Tir 1371/Summer 1992, pp. 20-26. See also the essay by Mehrangiz Kar.
87. See 'Women as Judges', Zanan, no. 4, Ordibehest 1371/Spring 1992, pp. 20-26, and Zanan, no. 5, Khordad & Tir 1371/Summer 1992, pp. 20-26. See also the essay by Mehrangiz Kar.
88. For a recent interview with Hashemi, see Zanan, no. 28, Farvardin 1375/Spring 1996.
89. See the interview with Mahnaz Afkhami in the Summer/Fall 1996 issue of the Lebanese journal al-Raida, pp. 13-18.
90. The most recent publication of Sisterhood is Global is a handbook Claiming Our Rights: A Manual For Women's Human Rights Education in Muslim Societies, Bethseda, Maryland 1996.