Hamstring muscles: An overview of anatomy, biomechanics and function, injury etiology, treatment, and prevention

Critical Reviews in Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine

Volumn 9, Issue 3-4, 1997, Pages 191-203

  Kroll, Penny G ^a   Raya, Michele A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Anatomy; Biomechanics; Function; Hamstring muscles; Injury etiology; Prevention; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT RUPTURE; BIOMECHANICS; HAMSTRING; HUMAN; LEG MUSCLE; LOW BACK PAIN; MUSCLE FUNCTION; MUSCLE INJURY; MUSCLE STRENGTH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0031470463     PISSN: 08962960     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/CritRevPhysRehabilMed.v9.i3-4.10     Document Type: Review

References (77)

1. Garrett, W. E., Jr., Rich, F. R., Nikolaou, P. K., and Vogler, J. B., III, Computer tomography of hamstring strains, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 21, 506, 1989.
2. Speer, K. P., Lohnes, J., and Garrett, W. E., Jr., Radiographic imaging of muscle strain injury. Am. J. Sports Med., 21, 89, 1993.
3. Gibbs, N., Common rugby league injuries. Recommendations for treatment and preventative measures, Sports Med., 18, 438, 1994.
4. Almekinder, L. C. and Gilbert, J. A., Healing of experimental muscle strains and the effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication, Am. J. Sports Med., 14, 303, 1986.
5. Best, T. M. and Garrett, W. E., Hamstring strains: expediting return to play, Phys. Sports Med., 24, 37, 1996.
6. Garrett, W. E., Jr., Califf, J. C., and Bassett, F. H., Biochemical correlates of hamstring injuries, Am. J. Sports Med., 12, 98, 1984.
7. Worrell, T. W., Factors associated with hamstring injuries: an approach to treatment and preventative measures, Sports Med., 17, 338, 1994.
8. Pomeranz, S. J. and Heidt, R. S., Jr., MR imaging in the prognostication of hamstring injury. Work in progress, Radiology, 189, 897, 1993.
9. Agre, J. C., Hamstring injuries. Proposed aetiological factors, prevention, and treatment, Sports Med., 2, 21, 1985.
10. Erkstand, J. and Gillquist, J., Soccer injuries and their mechanisms: a prospective study, Med. Sci. Sports Exer., 15, 267, 1983.
11. Heiser, T. M., Weber, J., Sullivan, G., et al., Prophylaxis and management of hamstring muscle injuries in intercollegiate football players, Am. J. Sports Med., 12, 368, 1984.
12. Caillet, R., Low Back Pain Syndrome, 3rd ed., F. A. Davis, Co., Philadelphia, PA, 1980.
13. Cibulka, M. T., Rose, S. J., Delitto, A., and Sinacore, D. R., Hamstring muscle strain treated by mobilizating the sacroiliac joint, Phys. Ther., 66, 1220, 1990.
14. Morris, A. F., Sports Medicine: Prevention of Athletic Injuries, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1984.
15. Moore, K. L., Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 2nd ed., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1985.
16. Norkin, C. C. and Levangie, P. K., Joint Structure and Function, A Comprehensive Analysis, 2nd ed., F. A. Davis, Co, Philadelphia, PA, 1992.
17. Basmajian, J. V. and DeLuca, C. J., Muscles Alive, Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography, 5th ed., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1985.
18. Wickiewics, T. L., et al., Muscle architecture of the human lower limb, Clin. Orthop., 179, 275, 1983.
19. Hollinshead, W. H. and Rosse, C., Textbook of Anatomy, 4th ed., Harper & Row, Philadelphia, PA, 389, 1985.
20. Garrett, W. E., Jr., Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects, Med. Sci. Sports Exer., 22, 436, 1990.
21. O'Brien, M., Functional anatomy and physiology of tendons, Clin. Sports Med., 11, 505, 1992.
22. Feagin, J. A. and Lambert, K. L., Mechanism of injury and pathology of anterior cruciate ligament injuries, Orthoped. Clin. North Am., 16, 41, 1985.
23. Kaplan, E. B., Some aspects of functional anatomy of the human knee joint, Clin Orthoped., 23, 18, 1962.
24. Agre, J. C. and Baxter, T. L., Musculoskeletal profile of male collegiate soccer players, Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil., 68, 147, 1987.
25. Posch, E., Haglund, Y., and Eriksson, E., Prospective study of concentric and eccentric leg muscle torques, flexibility, physical conditioning, and variation in injury rates during one season of amateur ice hockey, Int. J. Sports Med., 10, 113, 1989.
26. Ford, W. J., Bailey, S. D., Babich, K., and Worrell, T. W., Effect of hip position on gravity effect torque, Med. Sci. Sports Exer., 26, 230, 1994.
27. Fillyaw, M., Bevins, T., and Fernandez, L., Importance of correcting isokinetic peak torque for effect of gravity when calculating knee flexor to extensor muscle ratios, Phys. Ther., 66, 23, 198.
28. Fried, T. and Lloyd, G. J., An overview of common soccer injuries. Management and prevention, Sports Med., 14, 269, 1992.
29. Perry, J., Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function, SLACK, Inc., Thorofare, NJ, 1992.
30. Craik, R. L. and Oatis, C. A., Gait Analysis, Theory and Application, Mosby, St. Louis, MO, 1995.
31. Jacobs, R. and van Ingen Schenau, G. J., Intermuscular coordination in a sprint push-off, J. Biomech., 25, 953, 1992.
32. Brown, J. M., Mills, J. H., and Baker, A., Neuromuscular control of lifting in the elderly, Gerontology, 40, 298, 1994.
33. Graves, J. E., Webb, D. C., Pollock, M. L., Matkovich, J., Leggett, S. H., Carpenter, D. M., Foster, D. N., and Cirulli, J., Pelvic stabilization during resistance training: its effect on the development of lumbar extension strength, Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil., 75, 210, 1994.
34. Gundewall, B., Lijeqvist, M., and Hansson, T., Primary prevention of back symptoms and absence from work. A prospective randomized study among hospital employees, Spine, 18, 587, 1993.
35. Fairbank J. C. T., Pynsent, P. B., Van Poortvliet, J. A., and Phillips, H., Influence of anthropometric factors and joint laxity in the incidence of adolescent back pain, Spine, 9, 461, 1984.
36. Biering-Sorenson, F., Physical measurements as risk indicator for low-back trouble over a one-year period, Spine, 9, 106, 1984.
37. Mellin, G., Correlations of hip mobility with degree of back pain and lumbar spinal mobility in chronic low-back pain patients, Spine, 13, 668, 1988.
38. Battie, M. C., Bigos, S. J., Sheehy, A., and Wortley, M. D., Spinal flexibility and individual factors that influence it, Phy Ther., 67, 653, 1986.
39. Zachazewski, J. E. and Reischl, S. R., Flexibility for the runner: specific program considerations, Top. Acute Care Trauma Rehabil., 9, 1986.
40. Zachazewski, J. E., Magee, D. J., and Quillen, W. S., Athletic Injuries and Rehabilition, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, 1996.
41. Burbaker, C. E. and James, S. L., Injuries to runners, J. Sports Med., 2, 189, 1974.
42. Brandser, E. A., El-Khoury, G. Y., Kathol, M. H., Callaghan, J. J., and Tearse, D. S., Hamstring injuries: radiographic, conventional tomographic, CT, and MRI characteristics, Radiology, 197, 257, 1995.
43. Nikolaou, P. K., Macdonald, B. L., and Glisson, R. R., Biomechanical and histological evaluation of muscle after controlled strain injury, Am. J. Sports Med., 15, 9, 1987.
44. Puranen, J. and Orava, S., The hamstring syndrome: a new diagnosis of gluteal sciatic pain, Am. J. Sports Med., 16, 517, 1988.
45. Carmody, C. and Prietto, C., Entrapment of the sciatic nerve as a late sequela of injury to the hamstring muscles, J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am., 77, 1100, 1995.
46. Safran, M., Garrett, W., Seaber, A., Glisson, R., and Ribbeck, B., The role of warmup in muscular injury prevention, Am. J. Sports Med., 16, 123, 1988.
47. Worrell, T. W., Perrin, D. H., Gansneder, B., and Gieck, J., Comparison of isokinetic strength and flexibility measures between hamstring injured and on-injured athletes, J. Sports Phys. Ther., 13, 118, 1991.
48. Chandler, T. J., Kibler, W., Uhl, T. L., Wooten, B., Kiser, and Stone, E., Flexibility comparisons of junior elite tennis player to other athletes, Am. J. Sports Med., 18, 134, 1990.
49. Kibler, W. B., McQueen, C., and Uhl, T., Fitness evaluations an fitness finding in competitive junior tennis players, Clin. Sports Med., 7, 403, 1988.
50. Anderson, B. and Burke, E. R., Scientific, medical, and practical aspects of stretching, Clin. Sports Med., 10, 63, 1991.
51. Jonhagen, S., Nemeth, G., and Eriksson, E., The role of concentric and eccentric hamstring muscle strength and flexibility, Am. J. Sports Med., 22, 262, 1994.
52. Gossman, M. R., Sahrman, S. A., and Rose, S. J., Review of length associated changes in muscle, Phy. Ther., 62, 1799, 1982.
53. Hamilton, W. G., A profile of the musculoskeletal characteristics of elite professional ballet dancers, Am. J. Sports Med., 20, 267, 1992.
54. Nicholas, J. A., Risk factors, sports medicine and the orthopedic system: an overview, Sports Med., 3, 243, 1975.
55. Nicholas, J. A., Sports medicine, N.w York J. Med., 20, 60, 1974.
56. Van Beveren, P. J., Effects of muscle stretching program on muscle strength, Emp. State Phys. Ther., 20, 9, 1979.
57. Kroll, P. G., The effect of increased SLR on work production in subjects with tight hamstrings, Isokinet. Exer Sci., in press.
58. Burkett, L. N., Investigations of hamstring strains: the case of the hybrid muscle, J. Sports Med., 3, 228, 1976.
59. Harner, C. D., Paulos, L. E., Greenwald, A. E., Rosenberg, T. D., and Colley, V. C., Detailed analysis of patients with bilateral anterior cruciate ligament injuries, Am. J. Sports Med., 22, 37, 1994.
60. Tibone, J. E. and Antich, T. J., Electromyographic analysis of the anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee, Clin. Orthoped., 288,35, 1993.
61. Frank, C. B. and Gravel, J. C., Hamstring spasm in anterior cruciate ligament injuries. Arthroscopy, 11, 444, 1995.
62. Beard, D. J. and Fergusson, C. M., The conservative management of anterior cruciate ligament deficiency; a nationwide survey of current practice, Physiotherapy, 78, 181, 1992.
63. Krivickas, L. S. and Feinber, J. H., Lower extremity injuries in college athletes: relation between ligamentous laxity and lower extremity muscle tightness, Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab., 77, 1139, 1996.
64. Draganich, L. F., Jaeger, R. J., and Kralj, A. R., Coactivation of the hamstrings and quadriceps during extension of the knee, J. Bone Jt. Surg., 71A, 1075, 1989.
65. Andriacchi, T. P. and Birac, D., Functional testing in the anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee, Clin. Ortho., 288, 40, 1993.
66. Huang, C. H., Cheng, C. K., Lee, Y. T., and Lee, K. S., Muscle strength after successful total knee replacement: a 6- to 13-year follow-up, Clin. Orthop., 328, 147, 1996. Muscles that span two joints have been found to be most commonly strained (Hollinshead, 1985, Garrett, 1990, O'Brien, 1992).
67. Yack, H. J., Riley, L. M., and Whieldon, T. R., Anterior tibial translation during progressive loading of the ACL deficient knee during weight bearing and nonweight bearing isometric exercise, J. Sports Phys. Ther., 20, 247, 1994.
68. Solomonow, M., Baratta, R., Zhou, E. E., Shoji, H., Bose, W., Beck, C., and D'Ambrosia, R., The synergistic action of the anterior cruciate ligament and thigh muscles in maintaining joint stability, Am. J. Sports Med., 15, 207, 1987.
69. O'Conner, J. J., Can muscle co-contraction protect knee ligaments after injury or repair? J. Bone Jt. Surg. Br., 75-B, 41, 1993.
70. Nyland, J. A., Shapiro, R., Caborn, D., Nita, A., and Malone, T. R., The effect of quadriceps femoris, hamstring and placebo eccentric fatigue on knee and ankle dynamics during crossover cutting, J. Sports Phys. Ther., 25, 171, 1997.
71. Link, C. S., Nicholson, G. G., Shaddeau, S. A., Birch, R., and Gossman, M. R., Lumbar curvature I standing and sitting in two types of chairs: relationship of hamstring and hip flexor muscle length, Phys. Ther., 70, 611, 1990.
72. Gajdosik, R. L., Hatcher, C. K., and Whitsell, S., Influence of short hamstring muscles on the pelvis and lumbar spine in standing and during the toe-touch test, Clin. Biomech., 7, 3, 1992.
73. Gajdosik, R. L., Alber, C. R., and Mitman, J. J., Influence of hamstring length on the standing position and flexion range of motion of the pelvic angle, lumbar angle, and thoracic angle, J. Sports Phys. Ther., 20, 213, 1994.
74. Gailey, R. S. and Raya, M. A., Step by Step: A Functional Approach to Orthopedic Rehabilitation, Course Manual, Advanced Rehabilitation Therapy, Miami, FL, 1996.
75. Irving, G., The rationale and use of anti-flammatories and pain killers in the rehabilitation of sports injuries, S. Afr. Fam. Pract., 10, 277, 1989.
76. Reynolds, J. K., Noakes, T. D., Schwellnes, M. P., Windt, A., and Bowerbank, P., Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs fail to enhance healing of acute hamstring injuries treated with physiotherapy, S. Afr. Med. J., 85, 517, 1995.
77. Mattes, A. L., Active Isolated Stretching, Aaron L. Mattes, Sarasota, FL, 1995.