Ardabil becomes a province: Center-periphery relations in Iran

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 235-253

  Chehabi, H E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING COUNTRY; PERIPHERAL REGION; PROVINCIAL POLITICS; REGIONAL POLITICS; SOVIET DISINTEGRATION; STATE-SOCIETY RELATIONS;

IRAN, ARDABIL PROVINCE;

EID: 0031447086     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800064485     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. On the importance of local politics, see Joel S. Migdal, "The State in Society: An Approach to Struggles of Domination," in State Power and Social Force: Domination and Transformation in the Third World, ed. Joel S. Migdal, Atul Kohli, and Vivienne Shue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
2. For interesting studies on the capital city, see Téhéran: Capitale bicentenaire, ed. Chahryar Adle and Bernard Hourcade (Paris and Tehran: Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, 1992).
3. See Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), chap. 1.
4. Kaveh Ehsani, "Islam, Modernity, and National Identity," Middle East Insight 11,5 (July-August 1995): 49.
5. Vahid F. Nowshirvani and Patrick Clawson, "The State and Social Equity in Postrevolutionary Iran," in The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, ed. Myron Weiner and Ali Banuazizi (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
6. Hooshang Amirahmadi and Farhad Atash, "Dynamics of Provincial Development and Disparity in Iran, 1956-1984," Third World Planning Review 9 (1987); Hooshang Amirahmadi, "The State and Territorial Social Justice in Post-Revolutionary Iran," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 13 (1989); and Ahmad Sharbatoghlie, Urbanization and Regional Disparities in Post-Revolutionary Iran (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), chap. 7.
7. Hooshang Amirahmadi and Farhad Atash, "Dynamics of Provincial Development and Disparity in Iran, 1956-1984," Third World Planning Review 9 (1987); Hooshang Amirahmadi, "The State and Territorial Social Justice in Post-Revolutionary Iran," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 13 (1989); and Ahmad Sharbatoghlie, Urbanization and Regional Disparities in Post-Revolutionary Iran (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), chap. 7.
8. Hooshang Amirahmadi and Farhad Atash, "Dynamics of Provincial Development and Disparity in Iran, 1956-1984," Third World Planning Review 9 (1987); Hooshang Amirahmadi, "The State and Territorial Social Justice in Post-Revolutionary Iran," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 13 (1989); and Ahmad Sharbatoghlie, Urbanization and Regional Disparities in Post-Revolutionary Iran (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), chap. 7.
9. See Ehsani, "Islam, Modernity, and National Identity"; and Bernard Hourcade, "Ethnie, nation et citadinité en Iran," in Le Fait ethnique en Iran et en Afghanistan, ed. Jean-Pierre Digard (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1988).
10. See Ehsani, "Islam, Modernity, and National Identity"; and Bernard Hourcade, "Ethnie, nation et citadinité en Iran," in Le Fait ethnique en Iran et en Afghanistan, ed. Jean-Pierre Digard (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1988).
11. A recent edition of early Iranian recordings includes a short speech by this shah, in which his accent is noticeable.
12. See Touraj Atabaki, Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and Autonomy in Iran after the Second World War (London: British Academic Press, 1993), 53-61. It should be pointed out, however, that this repression was at no point as severe as it was at times in Turkey: the speaking of languages other than the official one was never outlawed in Iran, and the languages of the Christian minorities (Armenians and Chaldaeo-Assyrians) were even taught in their schools.
13. The notion of a nation as an imagined community is taken from Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
14. "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran," Middle East Journal 34 (Spring 1980): 190.
15. This is reflected, for instance, in official textbooks, which now speak of the "ethnic groups" (aqvām) of Iran. See Nouchine Yavari-d'Hellencourt, "Ethnies et ethnicité dans les manuels scolaires iraniens," in Le Fait ethnique. The corollary of this recognition is, as might be expected in a religiously defined state, that non-Muslims now face more institutionalized discrimination than before the revolution.
16. For a discussion of the Turkic element in Iran, see Louis Bazin, "Les turcophones d'Iran: aperçus ethno-linguistiques," and Xavier de Planhol, "Le fait turc en Iran: quelques jalons," in Le Fait ethnique.
17. For a discussion of the Turkic element in Iran, see Louis Bazin, "Les turcophones d'Iran: aperçus ethno-linguistiques," and Xavier de Planhol, "Le fait turc en Iran: quelques jalons," in Le Fait ethnique.
18. This view has antecedents in the Soviet period. See D. B. Nissman, The Soviet Union and Iranian Azerbaijan: The Use of Nationalism for Political Penetration (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1987). For a discussion of the different national trajectories of Azerbaijanis on both sides of the border, see S. Enders Wimbush, "Divided Azerbaijan: Nation Building, Assimilation, and Mobilization Between Three States," in Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers, ed. William O. McCagg, Jr., and Brian D. Silver (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979).
19. This view has antecedents in the Soviet period. See D. B. Nissman, The Soviet Union and Iranian Azerbaijan: The Use of Nationalism for Political Penetration (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1987). For a discussion of the different national trajectories of Azerbaijanis on both sides of the border, see S. Enders Wimbush, "Divided Azerbaijan: Nation Building, Assimilation, and Mobilization Between Three States," in Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers, ed. William O. McCagg, Jr., and Brian D. Silver (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979).
20. See W. J. M. Mackenzie, "Peripheries and Nationbuilding: The Case of Scotland," in Mobilization, Center-Periphery Structures, and Nation-Building: A Volume in Commemoration of Stein Rokkan, ed. Per Torsvik (Bergen: Universitets-forlaget, 1982), 158-60; and Juan Linz, "Peripheries within the Periphery?" in ibid., which discusses the Basque case.
21. See W. J. M. Mackenzie, "Peripheries and Nationbuilding: The Case of Scotland," in Mobilization, Center-Periphery Structures, and Nation-Building: A Volume in Commemoration of Stein Rokkan, ed. Per Torsvik (Bergen: Universitets-forlaget, 1982), 158-60; and Juan Linz, "Peripheries within the Periphery?" in ibid., which discusses the Basque case.
22. G. Demorgny, Les réformes et l'enseignement administratif en Perse (Tehran: Pharos, 1913), 60-61, as quoted in L. Bouvat, "La réorganisation de l'administration persane," Revue du Monde Musulman 22 (March 1913): 277-78. In today's Iran, twelve out of twenty-six provinces bear the name of their capital.
23. G. Demorgny, Les réformes et l'enseignement administratif en Perse (Tehran: Pharos, 1913), 60-61, as quoted in L. Bouvat, "La réorganisation de l'administration persane," Revue du Monde Musulman 22 (March 1913): 277-78. In today's Iran, twelve out of twenty-six provinces bear the name of their capital.
24. On this period in Ardabil's history, see Monika Gronke, Derwische im Vorhof der Macht: Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Nordwestirans im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993).
25. On Ardabil under the Safavids, see A. H. Morton, "The Ardabil Shrine in the Reign of Shah Tahmasp I," Iran 12 (1974); Margaret Medley, "Islam, Chinese Porcelain and Ardabil," Iran 13 (1975); and Bert Fragner, "Ardabil zwischen Sultan und Schah. Zehn Urkunden Schah Tahmasp II," Turcica 6 (1975).
26. On Ardabil under the Safavids, see A. H. Morton, "The Ardabil Shrine in the Reign of Shah Tahmasp I," Iran 12 (1974); Margaret Medley, "Islam, Chinese Porcelain and Ardabil," Iran 13 (1975); and Bert Fragner, "Ardabil zwischen Sultan und Schah. Zehn Urkunden Schah Tahmasp II," Turcica 6 (1975).
27. On Ardabil under the Safavids, see A. H. Morton, "The Ardabil Shrine in the Reign of Shah Tahmasp I," Iran 12 (1974); Margaret Medley, "Islam, Chinese Porcelain and Ardabil," Iran 13 (1975); and Bert Fragner, "Ardabil zwischen Sultan und Schah. Zehn Urkunden Schah Tahmasp II," Turcica 6 (1975).
28. Because of the Islamic Republic's antimonarchical ideology, however, Ardabilis cannot fully put this fact into the service of their local pride.
29. For the history of the city, see Encyclopaedia Iranica, s.v. "Ardabil," and Bābā S + (Combining dot below sign)afarī, Ardabil̄ dar guzargāh-i tārīkh (Ardabil: Islamic Azad University Press, 1991). For a glimpse of Ardabil in late Qajar times, see Staatsrat v. Hahn, "Die Stadt Ardebil einst und jetzt," Asien 10 (October 1910).
30. For the history of the city, see Encyclopaedia Iranica, s.v. "Ardabil," and Bābā S + (Combining dot below sign)afarī, Ardabil̄ dar guzargāh-i tārīkh (Ardabil: Islamic Azad University Press, 1991). For a glimpse of Ardabil in late Qajar times, see Staatsrat v. Hahn, "Die Stadt Ardebil einst und jetzt," Asien 10 (October 1910).
31. For the history of the city, see Encyclopaedia Iranica, s.v. "Ardabil," and Bābā S + (Combining dot below sign)afarī, Ardabil̄ dar guzargāh-i tārīkh (Ardabil: Islamic Azad University Press, 1991). For a glimpse of Ardabil in late Qajar times, see Staatsrat v. Hahn, "Die Stadt Ardebil einst und jetzt," Asien 10 (October 1910).
32. On the Ottoman nexus, see Anja Pistor-Hatam, Iran und die Reformbewegung im osmanischen Reich: Persische Staatsmänner, Reisende und Oppositionelle unter dem Einfluß der Tanzimat (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1992), and Les Iraniens d'Istanbul, ed. Thierry Zarcone and Fariba Zarinbaf-Shahr (Tehran: Institut Français de Recherches en Iran and Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes, 1993).
33. On the Ottoman nexus, see Anja Pistor-Hatam, Iran und die Reformbewegung im osmanischen Reich: Persische Staatsmänner, Reisende und Oppositionelle unter dem Einfluß der Tanzimat (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1992), and Les Iraniens d'Istanbul, ed. Thierry Zarcone and Fariba Zarinbaf-Shahr (Tehran: Institut Français de Recherches en Iran and Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes, 1993).
34. Ritual fervor in Ardabil is attested to as early as 1634, when a diplomatic mission led by the Duke of Holstein observed it. See Adam Olearius, Vermehrte Newe Beschreibung der Muscowitischen und Persischen Reyse, ed. Dieter Lohmeier (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1971, reprint of 1656 edition), book 4, chap. 23, 454-58.
35. ⊂ziyakhānī dar shahristān-i Ardabīl" (B.A. thesis,Tehran University, Faculty of Social Sciences and Cooperatives, 1976).
36. ⊂," Der Islam 55 (1978).
37. Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980).
38. ⊂ārif-i Fārsī (Tehran: Franklin, 1966).
39. ⊂ārif-i Fārsī (Tehran: Franklin, 1966).
40. Shaul Bakhash, "Center-Periphery Relations in Nineteenth-Century Iran," Iranian Studies 14 (Winter-Spring 1981): 31. See also G. Demorgny, Essai sur l'administration de la Perse (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1913), 43-75.
41. Shaul Bakhash, "Center-Periphery Relations in Nineteenth-Century Iran," Iranian Studies 14 (Winter-Spring 1981): 31. See also G. Demorgny, Essai sur l'administration de la Perse (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1913), 43-75.
42. This nomenclature is almost identical to that used in the Ottoman Empire. See Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 41-42.
43. ⊃ināt va Sīstān," Rahāvard 9, 35 (Spring 1373/1994); and Mostapha Ansari, "The History of Khuzistan: 1878-1925: A Study in Provincial Autonomy and Change" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1974).
44. ⊃ināt va Sīstān," Rahāvard 9, 35 (Spring 1373/1994); and Mostapha Ansari, "The History of Khuzistan: 1878-1925: A Study in Provincial Autonomy and Change" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1974).
45. ⊃ināt va Sīstān," Rahāvard 9, 35 (Spring 1373/1994); and Mostapha Ansari, "The History of Khuzistan: 1878-1925: A Study in Provincial Autonomy and Change" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1974).
46. For details, see Bakhash, "Center-Periphery Relations."
47. Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1961), 60.
48. See Bruno Rémond and Jacques Blanc, Les Collectivités locales (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale de Sciences Politiques and Dalloz, 1989).
49. Today, the word ayālat denotes the states of federations, and vilāyat is colloquially used to refer to the area of one's origin outside the capital, much as the word province is used in France. Interestingly, in Turkey vilayet survived to our day as the term used for the basic territorial unit.
50. W. Hardy Wickwar, "Pattern and Problems of Local Administration in the Middle East," Middle East Journal 12 (Summer 1958): 250-51.
51. ⊂Irāq," Iran 20 (1982). As a suffix meaning "place of," istān has had a worldwide career - to wit, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, and even South Africa's now defunct "bantustans."
52. ⊂Irāq," Iran 20 (1982). As a suffix meaning "place of," istān has had a worldwide career - to wit, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, and even South Africa's now defunct "bantustans."
53. In addition, the borders were in many cases drawn without any respect for traditional linkages. For example, the desert city of Kashan, south of Tehran, was placed in the Second Province alongside Mazandaran, whereas Arak, also south of the capital, became an exclave of the First Province, essentially Gilan. Both Mazandaran and Gilan are Caspian provinces. The Jacobin logic of this is similar to that of a never-implemented French plan to divide France into départements, each shaped like a square with a side length of 72 kilometers. See Rémond and Blanc, Collectivités, 72.
54. See Atabaki, Azerbaijan. The text of the agreement is on pp. 185-89.
55. Although this may or may not have been the case, it bears repeating that the division of Azerbaijan predates the autonomist interlude and goes back to a time when autonomism was not an issue.
56. It is important to keep this in mind, given the temptation to interpret the creation of Ardabil Province as nothing but an attempt to divide and rule the Azerbaijanis.
57. ⊃ī 3, 1 (Summer 1988). A similar movement can be observed in Turkey, where the number of provinces began to rise in early Ottoman times and continued after the advent of the republic.
58. ⊂ārif-i Fārsī (s.v. "Āstārā") and as 1963 in the Encyclopaedia Iranica (s.v. "Astara"). This disagreement is a typical example of the general confusion and uncertainty that surrounded the administrative status of lesser towns in Iran throughout the Pahlavi period.
59. Tamāshā-i zindigī, nos. 1-2 (Farvardīn-Urdībihisht 1372 [Spring 1993]): 26-27, 84 (hereafter TZ).
60. Farrokh Zamani Ashtiani, Die Provinz Ostazarbayegan: Studie zu einem raumplanerischen Leitbild aus geographischer Sicht (Bern: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Geographica Bernensia, 1979), 98. This book is in both German and English.
61. For instance, when the rich Moghan Plain was developed for agribusiness in the 1970s, it was connected by a good road to Tabriz but not to Ardabil, to which it is closer.
62. Sharbatoghlie, Urbanization and Regional Disparities, 124, 134.
63. The information is taken from the statistical yearbooks for the provinces of East Azerbaijan and Ardabil for the years 1993-94. Although Iranian statistics are not necessarily trustworthy, they can be used for comparative purposes.
64. ⊂Abdulmaliki, "Gilihhā va dilgīrīhā pāyān girift," TZ, 100.
65. ⊂alanī-i majlis-i shūrā-i islami, session 69, no. 13963, 14 January 1993, 31.
66. ⊂a-i qavānīn-i sāl-i 1362 (Tehran: Shirkat-i sahāmi-i rūznamih-i rasmī-i jumhurī-i islāmī-i Irān, 1984), 170.
67. That the two cities where the Safavids began and ended should take such a prominent part in the war may or may not be a coincidence.
68. Personal communication from a former volunteer.
69. For a discussion of the uses of the Karbala paradigm in the Iran-Iraq War, see Haggay Ram, Myth and Mobilization in Revolutionary Iran: The Use of the Friday Congregational Sermon (Washington, D.C.: American University Press, 1994), 206-22.
70. Bahār-i Āzarbāījān (hereafter BA), 23 September 1992, 8.
71. B4, 20 February 1993, 2; TZ, 41-47.
72. B4, 20 February 1993, 2; TZ, 41-47.
73. This list is given in this order in BA, 22 December 1992, 8.
74. It is a sign of the paucity of services in Ardabil that there is no printing press capable of producing the newspaper in the city. The paper is published in Tehran and sent to Ardabil. Articles are in Persian, but the penultimate page, reserved for poetry, contains Azerbaijani poems as well as Persian poems.
75. In a local history of Ardabil published in 1992, the author mentions that the shah and his consort were also received enthusiastically by the people of Ardabil as late as the summer of 1976; Bābā S + 8#0323;afarī, Ardabīl, 3: 146-48.
76. Hāshimī, Hāshimī, turā ba rūh + 8#0323;-i Imām (or qasam ba rūh + 8#0323;-i rahbar) Ardabīl ustān shavad.
77. TZ, 46.
78. Kaīhān, 5 October 1991, 2.
79. Quoted in BA, 23 October 1992, 8.
80. The text is reproduced in ibid., 21 April 1992, 8.
81. Ibid., 21 April 1992, 1, 2.
82. On these elections, see David Menashri, "The Domestic Power Struggle and the Fourth Iranian Majles Elections," Orient 33, 3 (September 1992);
83. and Farzin Sarabi, "The Post-Khomeini Era in Iran: The Elections of the Fourth Islamic Majles," Middle East Journal 48, 1 (Winter 1994).
84. It is difficult to say whether even within the limited choice offered citizens in Iranian elections these three were the top vote-getters. In an enigmatic article rife with allusions that are difficult to decipher, Bahār-i Āzarbāijān, 7 September 1992, 1-3, hinted at rigging.
85. BA, 22 May 1992, 1, 8.
86. BA, 6 June 1992, 2.
87. Private communication.
88. A founding father of the Islamic Republic and for many years head of Iran's judiciary, he had been eliminated from power in the course of the factional struggles that followed Khomeini's death in 1989.
89. A native of Meshginshahr, a city near Ardabil, he is the speaker of the Assembly of Experts that chooses Iran's top political-religious leader.
90. He had been chief of staff of the armed forces and Iran's highest-ranking officer. On General Zahirnezhad, see Les cahiers de l'Orient, 5 (1987): 250.
91. 73Ibid., 23 August 1992, 1.
92. 73Ibid., 23 August 1992, 1.
93. 73Ibid., 23 August 1992, 1.
94. Ibid., 23 July 1992, 1. This was confirmed by my local informants.
95. In Azerbaijani: Bīzah īrād adinīn, khānasī vīrān ulsūn.
96. BA, 23 July 1992, 1.
97. Ibid., 2.
98. Ibid., 7 August 1992, 8. Ardabil has one state and two private universities. See TZ, 38-41, 68.
99. Ibid., 7 August 1992, 8. Ardabil has one state and two private universities. See TZ, 38-41, 68.
100. BA, 23 September 1992, 8.
101. Ibid., 8 October 1992, 8.
102. Apparently Ayatollah Khamenei himself intervened to prevent the division of his home province, Khorasan; see the speech by Ali-Mohammad Gharibani during the debate around the first reading of the bill on provincehood: Rūznāma-i rasmī, 12 January 1993, 28. Another rumor I heard in Tehran was that the reason a second province in Khorasan was not created was that no agreement could be reached as to its capital.
103. ⊃i zindabād, Rafsanjānī pāyanda bād"; "Hāshimī Hāshimī, tashakkur tashakkur"; "Ardabīl ustān shuda, Irān gulistān shuda." The first chant is in Azerbaijani; the others are in Persian.
104. BA, 23 October 1992, 8.
105. For text, see ibid., 7 November 1992, 4.
106. Ibid., 22 November 1992, 2.
107. Ibid., 8 December 1992, 8.
108. Ibid., 22 December 1992, 1. See also TZ, 48-50.
109. Ibid., 22 December 1992, 1. See also TZ, 48-50.
110. Rūznāmih-i rasmī, 12 January 1993, 21-32.
111. He confused the word miāni with miānīn.
112. ⊂alanī-i majlis-i shūrā-i islāmī, session 98, no. 14052, 11 April 1993.
113. See Seyed Kazem Sajjadpour, "Iran, the Caucasus, the Central Asia," in The New Geopolitics of Central Asia and its Borderlands, ed. Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
114. At this point, death threats had been received by the Armenians of Tabriz, but the situation was defused when the Armenian religious leadership in Tehran issued a statement in support of the Iranian government and condemned the ongoing Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan.
115. ⊂a of Ardabil, Ayatollah Moravvej, was named Khamenei's representative in that city: BA, 7 August 1993, 3.
116. Risālat, 1 August 1994, 5, and ibid., 4 August 1994, 6.
117. Risālat, 1 August 1994, 5, and ibid., 4 August 1994, 6.
118. The Iranian press did not report on the riots, except for a series of articles titled "From Los Angeles to Qazvin" by Abbas Abdi, editor in chief of Salām, in which he criticized the government for encouraging more coverage of the riots in Los Angeles than on the issue of Qazvin. See Salām, 13-16 August 1994.
119. Ibid., 6 August 1994, 2.
120. See Risālat, 12 June 1994, 4; ibid., 13 June 1994, 2.
121. See Risālat, 12 June 1994, 4; ibid., 13 June 1994, 2.
122. Ibid., 18 June 1994, 2.
123. Ibid., 4 August 1994, 6. Qama-zanī is still practiced in Ardabil, but in more private settings. In May 1996, tourists went from Tehran to watch the ritual.
124. On the other hand, one cannot be sure, as in politics we cannot set up experiments. Perhaps the mobilization and organization of Ardabilis might have yielded the desired result even without the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
125. 101On the day that provincehood for Qazvin was debated in parliament, the deputy for Bukan, a Kurdish city in West Azerbaijan, called on the government to increase Kurdish programming on radio and television, to keep its promise to found an academy for Kurdish language and culture, and, for good measure, to make Bukan and surrounding areas a province. See Risālat, 4 July 1994, 6.
126. When the provincehood of Ardabil was celebrated in Tehran, the deputy for Meshginshahr, a cleric, was the only one to speak in Azerbaijani. He also wrote an Azeri poem for the occasion: BA, 21 January 1993, 7.
127. David A. Bell, "Lingua Populi, Lingua Dei: Language, Religion, and the Origins of French Revolutionary Nationalism," American Historical Review 100 (December 1995).
128. Amir Farman Farma, "A Comparative Study of Counter-Revolutionary Mass Movements during the French, Mexican, and Russian Revolutions with Contemporary Application" (Unpublished D.Phil, diss., Oxford University, 1990).
129. Bryan S. Turner, "Religion and State-Formation: A Commentary on Recent Debates," Journal of Historical Sociology 1 (September 1988): 330.
130. For a glimpse of official anti-Persian attitudes in the former Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan, see David Nissman, "The Origin and Development of the Literature of 'Longing' in Azerbaijan," Journal of Turkish Studies 8 (1984).
131. In Great Britain, for instance, the end of World War I brought advances for the trade-union movement as well as for women's suffrage. See Arthur Marwick, The Deluge: British Society and the First World War (London: The Bodley Head, 1965), chaps. 2, 3.
132. A prime example of this is the veterans' sanatorium constructed in Ardabil on the initiative of a wheelchair-bound veteran who had been injured during the liberation of Khorramshahr, and who personally lobbied city, provincial, and state officials for funds: TZ, 66-67.
133. For the case of Iran, see Eric Rouleau, "La République islamique d'Iran confrontée à la société civile," Le Monde Diplomatique, June 1995, 6-7.
134. See, for instance, S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Jacobin Component of Fundamentalist Movements," Contention 5 (Spring 1996): 159.
135. See, for instance, Diane Singerman, Avenues of Participation: Family, Politics, and Networks in Urban Quarters in Cairo (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
136. This is discussed in H. E. Chehabi, "The Political Regime of the Islamic Republic in Comparative Perspective," in The Middle East in a New World Order: The Imperative of a Holistic Approach, ed. Bahman Baktiari, Scott Harrop, and Mohsen Milani (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, forthcoming).