United mechanisms for the generation of low- and high-frequency tropical waves. Part I: Control experiments with moist convective adjustment

Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences

Volumn 54, Issue 9, 1997, Pages 1262-1276

  Hayashi, Y ^a   Golder, D G ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031446303     PISSN: 00224928     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<1262:UMFTGO>2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Arakawa, A., and W. H. Schubert, 1974: Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with the large-scale environment. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 674-701.
2. _, and J.-M. Chen, 1987. Closure assumptions in the cumulus parameterization problem. Short- and medium-range numerical weather prediction: Collection of papers presented at the WMO/IUGG NWP symposium, Tokyo, August 1986. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 107-131.
3. _, and K.-M. Xu, 1992: The macroscopic behavior of simulated cumulus convection and semi-prognostic tests of the Arakawa-Schubert cumulus parameterization. Physical Process in Atmospheric Models, O. R. Sikka and S. S. Singh, Eds., Wiley Eastern, 3-18.
4. Bates, J. R., A. M. Lasheen, and A. F. Hanna, 1978: On the application of the Arakawa-Schubert convective parameterization scheme. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1043-1046.
5. Bennet, J. R., and J. A. Young, 1971: The influence of latitudinal wind shear upon large-scale wave propagation into the tropics. Mon. Wea. Rev., 99, 202-214.
6. Betts, A. K., 1986: A new convective adjustment scheme. Part I: Observational and theoretical basis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 677-691.
7. _, and M. J. Miller, 1986: A new convective adjustment scheme. Part II: Single column tests using GATE waves, BOMEX, ATEX and arctic air-mass data sets. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 693-709.
8. Blade, I., and D. L. Hartmann, 1993: Tropical intraseasonal oscillations in a simple nonlinear model. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2922-2939.
9. Boville, B. A., and W. J. Randel, 1992: Equatorial waves in a stratospheric GCM: Effects of vertical resolution. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 785-801.
10. Bretherton, C. S., 1993: The nature of adjustment in cumulus cloud fields. The Representation of Cumulus Convection in Numerical Models, Meteor. Monogr., No. 46, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 63-74.
11. _, and P K. Smolarkiewicz, 1989: Gravity waves, compensating subsidence, and detrainment around cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 740-759.
12. Brown, R. G., and C. S. Bretherton, 1995: Tropical wave instabilities: Convective interaction with dynamics using the Emanuel convective parameterization. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 67-82.
13. Chang, C. P., 1976: Forcing of stratospheric Kelvin waves by tropospheric heat sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 740-744.
14. _, and H. Lim, 1988: Kelvin-wave CISK: A possible mechanism for the 30-50-day oscillations? J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1709-1720.
15. Chao, W. C., 1995: A critique of wave-CISK as an explanation for the 40-50 day tropical intraseasonal oscillation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 73, 667-684.
16. _, and S.-J. Lin, 1994: Tropical intraseasonal oscillation, super cloud clusters, and cumulus convective schemes. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1282-1297.
17. _, and L. Deng, 1996: On the role of wind-induced surface heat exchange in a two-dimensional model of super cloud clusters. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 16931-16937.
18. Charney, J. G., 1969: A further note on large-scale motions in the tropics. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 182-185.
19. _, and A. Eliassen, 1964: On the growth of hurricane depression. J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 68-75.
20. Cho, H.-R., 1994: Cloud clusters, Kelvin wave-CISK, and the Madden-Julian oscillations in the equatorial troposphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 68-76.
21. Crum, F. X., and D. E. Stevens, 1983: A comparison of two cumulus parameterization schemes in a linear model of wave-CISK. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 2671-2688.
22. _, and T. J. Dunkerton, 1992: Analytic and numerical models of wave-CISK with conditional heating. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 1693-1708.
23. _, and _, 1994: CISK and evaporation-wind feedback with conditional heating of an equatorial beta-plane. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 11-18.
24. Davey, M. K., 1989: A simple tropical moist model applied to the "40-day" wave. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 115, 1071-1107.
25. Davis, H. C., 1979: Phase-lagged wave-CISK. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 105, 323-353.
26. Dunkerton, T. J., and F. X. Crum, 1991: Scale selection and propagation of wave-CISK with conditional heating. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 69, 449-458.
27. Emanuel, K. A., 1987: An air-sea interaction model of intraseasonal oscillations in the tropics. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2324-2340.
28. _, 1991: A scheme for representing cumulus convection in large-scale models. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2313-2335.
29. _, 1993: The effect of convective response time on WISHE modes. J. Amos. Sci., 50, 1763-1775.
30. _, J. D. Neelin, and C. S. Bretherton, 1994: On large-scale circulations in convective atmosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 120, 1111-1143.
31. Frederiksen, J. S., and C. S. Frederiksen, 1993: Monsoon disturbances, intraseasonal oscillations, teleconnection patterns, blocking, and storm tracks of the global atmosphere during January 1979: Linear theory. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 1349-1372.
32. Gadd, A. J., and J. F. Keers, 1970: Surface exchanges of sensible and latent heat in a 10-level model atmosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 96, 297-308.
33. Garcia, R. R., and M. L. Salby, 1987: Transient response to localized episodic heating in the tropics. Part II. Far-field behavior. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 499-530.
34. Gordon, C. T., and W. F. Stern, 1982: A description of the GFDL global spectral model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 625-644.
35. Goswami, P., and B. N. Goswami, 1991: Modification of n = 0 equatorial waves due to interaction between convection and dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2231-2244.
36. _, and _, 1996: Reply. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 919-922.
37. Hamilton, K., and J. D. Mahlman, 1988: General circulation model simulation of the semiannual oscillation of the tropical middle atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3212-3235.
38. Hayashi, Y., 1970: A theory of large-scale equatorial waves generated by condensation heat and accelerating the zonal wind. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 48, 140-160.
39. _, 1974: Spectral analysis of tropical disturbances appearing in a GFDL general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 180-218.
40. _, 1976: Non-singular resonance of equatorial waves under the radiation condition. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 183-201.
41. _, 1982: Space-time spectral analysis and its applications to atmospheric waves. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 60, 156-171.
42. _, and D. G. Golder, 1978: The generation of equatorial transient planetary waves: Control experiments with a GFDL general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2068-2082.
43. _, and _, 1980: The seasonal variation of tropical transient planetary waves appearing in a GFDL qeneral circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 705-716.
44. _, and _, 1986: Tropical intraseasonal oscillations appearing in a GFDL general circulation model and FGGE data. Part I: Phase propagation. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 3058-3067.
45. _, and S. Miyahara, 1987: A three-dimensional linear response model of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 843-857.
46. _, and D. G. Golder, 1988: Tropical intraseasonal oscillations appearing in a GFDL general circulation model and FGGE data. Part II: Structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3017-3033.
47. _, and _, 1993: Tropical 40-50- and 25-30-day oscillations appearing in realistic and idealized GFDL climate models and the ECMWF dataset. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 464-494.
48. _, and _, 1994: Kelvin and mixed Rossby-gravity waves appearing in the GFDL "SKYHI" general circulation model and the FGGE dataset: Implications for their generation mechanism and role in the QBO. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 901-935.
49. _, and _, 1997: United mechanisms for the generation of low-and high-frequency tropical waves. Part II: Theoretical interpretations. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, in press.
50. _, _, and J. D. Mahlman, 1984: Stratospheric and mesospheric Kelvin waves simulated by the GFDL "SKYHI" general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 1971-1984.
51. _, _, _, and S. Miyahara, 1989: The effect of horizontal resolution on gravity waves simulated by the GFDL SKYHI genaral circulation model. Pure Appl. Geophys., 130, 421-443.
52. Hayashi, Y.-Y., and A. Sumi, 1986: The 30-40 day oscillation simulated in an "aqua-planet" model. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan. 64, 431-467.
53. _, and T. Nakazawa, 1989: Evidence of the existence and eastward motion of superclusters at the equator. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 236-243.
54. Held, I. M., R. S. Hemler, and V. Ramaswamy, 1993: Radiative-convective equilibrium with explicit two-dimensional moist convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 3909-3927.
55. Hendon, H. H., 1988: A simple model of the 40-50-day oscillation. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 569-584.
56. _, and B. Liebmann, 1991: The structure of annual variation of antisymmetric fluctuations of tropical convection and their association with Rossby-gravity waves. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2127-2140.
57. _, and M. L. Salby, 1996: Planetary-scale interactions forced by intraseasonal variations of observed convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1751-1758.
58. Hess, P., D. S. Battisti, and P. Rasch, 1993a: The maintenance of the intertropical convergence zones and the large-scale tropical circulation on a water covered earth. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 691-713.
59. _, H. H. Hendon, and D. S. Battisti, 1993b: The relationship between mixed Rossby-gravity waves and convection in a general circulation model. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 71, 321-338.
60. Holton, J. R., 1972: Waves in the equatorial stratosphere generated by tropospheric heat sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 368-375.
61. _, 1973: On the frequency distribution of atmospheric Kelvin waves. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 499-501.
62. _, 1992: An Introduction to Dynamical Meteorology. 3d. ed. Academic Press, 511 pp.
63. Horinouchi, T., and S. Yoden, 1996: Excitation of transient waves by localized episodic heating in the tropics and their propagation into the middle atmosphere. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 74, 189-209.
64. Hu, Q., and D. A. Randall, 1994: Low-frequency oscillations in radiative-convective systems. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1089-1099.
65. _, and _, 1995: Low-frequency oscillations in radiative-convective systems. Part II: An idealized model. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 478-490.
66. Itoh, H., 1977: The response of equatorial waves to thermal forcing. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 55, 222-239.
67. _, 1978: Forced equatorial waves under the marginally stable state with respect to the wave-CISK mechanism. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 56, 145-158.
68. _, 1989: The mechanism for the scale selection of tropical intraseasonal oscillations. Part I: Selection of wavenumber 1 and the three-scale structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1779-1798.
69. _, 1994: Variations of atmospheric angular momentum associated with intraseasonal oscillations forced by zonally moving prescribed heating. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12981-12998.
70. _, and M. Ghil, 1988: The generation mechanism of mixed Rossby-gravity waves in the equatorial troposphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 585-604.
71. _, and N. Nishi, 1990: Consideration for the structure of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 68, 659-675.
72. Kuma, K., 1990: Diabatic heating and the low frequency dynamics in the tropics. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 44, 265-279.
73. _, 1994: The Madden and Julian oscillation and the tropical disturbances in an aqua-planet version of the JMA global model with T63 and T156 resolution. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 147-172.
74. Kuo, H.-L., 1965: On formation and intensification of the tropical cyclones through latent heat release by cumulus convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 22, 40-63.
75. _, 1975: Instability theory of large-scale disturbances in the tropics. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 2229-2245.
76. Kurihara, Y., 1973: A scheme of moist convective adjustment. Mon. Wea. Rev., 101, 547-553.
77. Lau, K.-M., and L. Peng, 1987: Origin of low frequency (intraseasonal) oscillations in the tropical atmosphere. Part I: Basic theory. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 950-972.
78. _, and H.-T. Wu, 1994: Large scale dynamics associated with super cloud cluster organization over the tropical western Pacific. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 481-497.
79. _, _, L. Peng, C.-H. Sui, and T. Nakazawa, 1989: Dynamics of super cloud clusters, westerly wind bursts, 30-60 day oscillations and ENSO: A unified view. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 67, 205-219.
80. Lau, N.-C., and K.-M. Lau, 1986: The structure and propagation of intraseasonal oscillations appearing in a OFDL GCM. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 2023-2047.
81. _, I. M. Held, and J. D. Neelin, 1988. The Madden-Julian oscillation in an idealized general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3810-3932.
82. Lim, H., T.-K. Lim, and C.-P. Chang, 1990: Reexamination of wave-CISK theory: Existence and properties of nonlinear wave-CISK modes. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 3078-3091.
83. Lindzen, R. S., 1967: Planetary waves on beta planes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 95, 441-451.
84. _, 1974: Wave-CISK in the tropics. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 156-179.
85. _, and T. Matsuno, 1968: On the nature of a large-scale wave disturbances in the equatorial stratosphere. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 46, 215-221.
86. Madden, R. A., and P R. Julian, 1971: Detection of a 40-50 day oscillation in the zonal wind in the tropical Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 702-708.
87. _, and _, 1972: Description of global-scale circulation cells in the tropics with a 40-50 day period. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 1109-1123.
88. _, and _, 1994: Observations of the 40-50-day tropical oscillation - A review. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 814-837.
89. Mak, M. K., 1969: Laterally driven stochastic motions in the tropics. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 41-64.
90. Manabe, S., J. Smagorinsky, and R. F. Stricler, 1965: Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrologic cycle. Mon. Wea. Rev., 93, 769-798.
91. _, D. G. Hahn, and J. L. Holloway Jr., 1979: Climate simulations with GFDL spectral models of the atmosphere: Effect of truncation. GARP Publ. Series 22, Vol. 1, 41-94. [Available from Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, No. 5, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.]
92. Manzini, E., and K. Hamilton, 1993: Middle atmospheric traveling waves forced by latent heat and convective heating. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2180-2200.
93. Mapes, B. E., 1993: Gregarious tropical convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2026-2037.
94. _, and R. A. Houze Jr., 1993: Cloud clusters and superclusters over the oceanic warm pool. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 1398-1415.
95. Matsuno, T., 1966: Quasi-geostrophic motions in the equatorial area. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 44, 25-43.
96. Miyahara, S., 1987: A simple model of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 341-351.
97. _, Y. Hayashi, and J. D. Mahlman, 1986: Interaction between gravity waves and planetary-scale flow simulated by the GFDL SKYHI general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 1844-1861.
98. Nakajima, K., and T. Matsuno, 1988: Numerical experiments concerning the origin of cloud clusters in the tropical atmosphere. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 309-329.
99. Nakazawa, T., 1986: Intraseasonal variations of OLR in the tropics during the FGGE year. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 64, 17-34.
100. _, 1988: Tropical super clusters within intraseasonal variations over the western Pacific. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 823-839.
101. Neelin, J. D., and J.-Y. Yu, 1994: Modes of tropical variability under convective adjustment and the Madden-Julian oscillation. Part I: Analytical theory. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1876-1894.
102. _, I. M. Held, and K. H. Cook, 1987: Evaporation-wind feedback and low-frequency variability in the tropical atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2341-2348.
103. Nicholls, M. E., R. A. Pielke, and W. R. Cotton, 1991: Thermally forced gravity waves in an atmosphere at rest. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 1869-1884.
104. Numaguti, A., and Y.-Y. Hayashi, 1991a: Behavior of cumulus activity and the structures of circulations in an "aqua planet" model. Part I: The structure of the super clusters. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 69, 541-561.
105. _, and _, 1991b: Behavior of cumulus activity and the structures of circulations in an "aqua planet" model. Part II: Eastward-moving planetary scale structure and the intertropical convergence zone. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 69, 563-579.
106. Ooyama, K., 1964: A dynamical model for the study of tropical cyclone development. Geopfis. Int., 4, 187-198.
107. Pandya, R., D. Durran, and C. Bretherton, 1993: Comments on "Thermally forced gravity waves in an atmosphere at rest." J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 4097-4101.
108. Park, C.-K., D. M. Straus, and K.-M. Lau, 1990: An evaluation of the structure of tropical intraseasonal oscillations in three general circulation models. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 68, 403-417.
109. Pitcher, E. J., and J. E. Geisler, 1987: The 40- to 50-day oscillation in a perpetual January simulation with a general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 11971-11978.
110. Randall, D. A., and D.-M. Pan, 1993: Implementation of the Arakawa-Schubert cumulus parameterization with a prognostic closure. The Representation of Cumulus Convection in Numerical Models, Meteor. Monogr., No. 46, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 137-144.
111. _, Harshvardhan, D. A. Dazlich, and T. G. Cosetti, 1989: Interactions among radiation, convection, and large-scale dynamics in a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1943-1970.
112. Randel, W., 1992: Upper tropospheric equatorial waves in ECMWF analyses. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 365-394.
113. Riehl, H., 1954: Tropical Meteorology. McGraw Hill, New York, 392 pp.
114. Salby, M. L., and R. R. Garcia, 1987. Transient response to localized episodic heating in the tropics. Part I: Excitation and short-time near field behavior. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 458-498.
115. _, _, and H. H. Hendon, 1994: Planetary-scale circulations in the presence of climatological and wave-induced heating. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2344-2367.
116. Seager, R., and S. E. Zebiak, 1994: Convective interaction with dynamics in a linear primitive equation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1307-1331.
117. Sheng, J., 1996: The Madden-Julian oscillation in the Canadian Climate Centre general circulation model. Climate Dyn., 12, 125-140.
118. Slingo, J. M., and R. A. Madden, 1991: Characteristics of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation in the NCAR community climate model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 117, 1129-1169.
119. _, and Coauthors, 1996: Intraseasonal oscillations in 15 atmospheric general circulation models: Results from an AMIP diagnostic sub-project. Climate Dyn., 12, 325-357.
120. Stark, T. E., 1976: Wave-CISK and cumulus parameterization. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2387-2391.
121. Stevens, D. E., and R. S. Lindzen, 1978: Tropical wave-CISK with a moisture budget and cumulus friction. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 940-961.
122. Sumi, A., 1992: Pattern formation of convective activity over the aqua-planet with globally uniform sea surface temperature (SST). J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 70, 855-876.
123. Swinbank, R. T., N. Palmer, and M. K. Davey, 1988: Numerical simulations of the Madden and Julian oscillations. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 774-788.
124. Takahashi, M., 1987: A theory of the slow phase speed of the intraseasonal oscillation using wave-CISK. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 43-49.
125. _, 1993: A QBO-like oscillation in a two-dimensional model derived from a GCM. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 71, 641-654.
126. _, and M. Shiobara. 1995: A note on a QBO-like oscillation in the 1/5 sector CCSR/NIES GCM. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 73, 131-137.
127. Takayabu, Y. N., 1994a: Large-scale cloud disturbances associated with equatorial waves. Part I: Spectral feature of the cloud disturbances. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 433-449.
128. _, 1994b: Larqe-scale cloud disturbances associated with equatorial waves. Part II: Westward-propagating inertio-gravity waves. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 451-465.
129. _, K.-M. Lau, and C.-H. Sui, 1996: Observation of a quasi-2-day wave during TOGA COARE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1892-1913.
130. Tokioka, T., K. Yamazaki, A. Kitoh, and T. Ose. 1988: The equatorial 30-60-day oscillation and the Arakawa-Schubert penetrative cumulus parameterization. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 883-901.
131. Tsay, C.-Y., 1974: Analysis of large-scale wave disturbances in the tropics simulated by an NCAR global circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 330-339.
132. Wallace, J. M., 1971: Spectral studies of tropospheric wave disturbances in the tropical western Pacific. Rev. Geophvs. Space Phys., 9, 557-612.
133. _, 1973: General circulation of the tropical lower stratosphere. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 11, 191-222.
134. _, and V. E. Kousky, 1968: Observational evidence of Kelvin waves in the tropical stratosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 280-292.
135. Wang, B., 1988: Dynamics of the tropical low-frequency waves. An analysis of the moist Kelvin waves. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 2051-2065.
136. _, and T. Li, 1994: Convective interaction with boundary-layer dynamics in the development of a tropical intraseasonal system. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1386-1400.
137. Webster, P. J., and H.-R. Chang, 1988: Equatorial energy accumulation and emanation regions: Impacts of a zonally varying basic state. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 803-829.
138. Wilson, J. D., and M. Mak, 1984: Tropical response to lateral forcing with a latitudinally and zonally varying nonuniform basic state. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 1187-1201.
139. Xie, S.-P., 1994: On the preferred zonal scale of wave-CISK with conditional heating. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 72, 19-30.
140. _, A. Kubokawa, and K. Hanawa, 1993a: Evaporation-wind feedback and the organizing of tropical convection on the planetary scale. Part I. Quasi-linear instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 3873-3883.
141. _, _, and _, 1993b: Evaporation-wind feedback and the organizing of tropical convection on the planetary scale. Part II. Nonlinear evolution. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 3884-3893.
142. Xu, K.-M., 1993: Cumulus ensemble simulation. The Representation of Cumulus Convection in Numerical Models, Meteor. Monogr., No. 46, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 221-235.
143. Yamagata, T., 1987. A simple moist model relevant to the origin of intraseasonal disturbances in the tropics. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 153-165.
144. _, and Y. Hayashi. 1984: A simple diagnostic model for the 30-50-day oscillation in the tropics. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 62, 709-717.
145. Yamasaki, M., 1969: Large-scale disturbances in the conditionally unstable atmosphere in low latitudes. Pap. Meteor. Geophys., 20, 289-336.
146. _, 1977: A preliminary experiment of the tropical cyclone without parameterizing the effects of cumulus convection. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 55, 11-31.
147. Yanai, M., 1975: Tropical meteorology. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 13, 685-710, and 800-808.
148. _, and T. Maruyama, 1966: Stratospheric wave disturbances propagating over the equatorial Pacific. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 44, 291-294.
149. _, and M. Murakami, 1970: Spectrum analysis of symmetric and antisymmetric equatorial waves. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 48, 186-197.
150. Yano, J. I., and K. Emanuel, 1991: An improved model of the equatorial troposphere and its coupling with the stratosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 377-389.
151. _, J. C. McWilliams, and M. W. Moncrief, 1995: Hiearchical tropical cloud systems in an analog shallow-water model. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1723-1742.
152. Yip, K.-J., and G. R. North, 1993: Tropical waves in a GCM with zonal symmetry. J. Climate, 6, 1691-1702.
153. Yoshizaki, M., 1991: Selective amplification of the eastward propagating mode in a positive-only wave-CISK model on an equatorial beta plane. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 69, 353-373.
154. Yu, J.-Y., and J. D. Neelin, 1994: Modes of tropical variability under convective adjustment and the Madden-Julian oscillation. Part II: Numerical results. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1895-1914.
155. Zhang, C., 1993: Laterally forced equatorial perturbations in a linear model. Part II: Mobile forcing. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 807-821.
156. _, and P. J. Webster, 1989: Effects of zonal flows on equatorially trapped waves. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 3632-3652.
157. _, and _, 1992: Laterally forced equatorial perturbations in a linear model. Part I: Stationary transient forcing. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 585-607.