Agricultural expansion as a tool of population redistribution in southeast Asia

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 1-26

  De Koninck, Rodolphe ^a   Déry, Steve ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION; FRONTIER SETTLEMENT; POPULATION REDISTRIBUTION; STATE FORMATION;

ASIA, (SOUTHEAST);

EID: 0031444162     PISSN: 00224634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022463400015150     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Jean-Luc Maurer, Modernisation agricole, développement économique et changement social. Le riz, la terre et l'homme à Java (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1986); Anne Booth, Agricultural Development in Indonesia (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1988), pp. 100-138.
2. Jean-Luc Maurer, Modernisation agricole, développement économique et changement social. Le riz, la terre et l'homme à Java (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1986); Anne Booth, Agricultural Development in Indonesia (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1988), pp. 100-138.
3. Nicos Alexandratos (ed.), World Agriculture Toward 2000, an FAO Study (New York: New York University Press, 1988), chapter 4.
4. R. Wikkramatileke, "Federal Land Development Authority in West Malaysia 1957-1971", Pacific Viewpoint 13, 1 (1972): 62-86;
5. Shamsul Bahrin and Lee Boon Thong, FELDA. Three Decades of Evolution (Kuala Lumpur: FELDA, 1988).
6. Rodolphe De Koninck, "The Peasantry as the Territorial Spearhead of the State in Southeast Asia: The Case of Vietnam", Sojourn. Social Issues in Southeast Asia 11, 2 (1996): 231-58.
7. Ibid. and "La paysannerie et l'État en Asie du Sud-Est: une affaire de compromis ... à suivre", Espaces Temps 53 (1993): 130-44.
8. Rodolphe De Koninck, "Forest Policies in Southeast Asia: Taming Nature or Taming People?", in Le défi forestier en Asie du Sud-Est/The Challenge of the Forest in Southeast Asia, ed. Rodolphe De Koninck (Québec: Université Laval, Documents du GÉRAC, 7, 1994), pp. 33-48.
9. Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 25, 2 (1994): 381-416 (397 and 398).
10. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
11. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
12. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
13. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
14. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
15. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
16. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
17. See, for example, Robin J. Pryor, ed., Migration and Development in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979); G. W. Jones and H. V. Richter (ed.), Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph no. 30, 1982); A. Pagonini (ed.), Migration from the Philippines (Quezon City: Scalabrinians, 1984); Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (eds.), Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988); Robert R. Reed, Patterns of Migration in Southeast Asia (Berkeley: Center for South and South East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990); Jan Bremen, Labor Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam: Free University Press for Center for Asian Studies); Chang Kok Eng, "International Migration in a Rapidly Developing Country: The Case of Peninsular Malaysia", Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography 25, 2 (1994): 69-78; Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia".
18. See, for example, Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State Making", in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 3-83.
19. Charles Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia", p. 413.
20. Brian Fegan, "The Philippines: Agrarian Stagnation Under a Decaying Regime", in Agrarian Transformations. Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia, ed. Gillian Hart, Andrew Turton and Benjamin White (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), p. 127.
21. Karl J. Pelzer, Pioneer Settlement in the Asiatic Tropics (New York: American Geographical Society, 1945), p. 129.
22. Pierre Gourou, Les pays tropicaux, 4th ed. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1966), p. 122 sq.
23. Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements, p. 134.
24. Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion. A Study of Peasant Revolt in The Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 239.
25. Shamsul Bahrin, "Rural Resettlement Programmes in the Asean Region", in Beyond Settlement: A Comparative Study of the Impact of Resettlement Programmes in Southeast Asia, ed. Shamsul Bahrin (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), pp. 1-28 (3).
26. Charles A. Fisher, South-East Asia. A Social, Economic and Political Geography (London: Methuen, second edition, 1966), p. 711; National Economic and Development Authority, Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1986 (Manila, 1987), p. 278.
27. Charles A. Fisher, South-East Asia. A Social, Economic and Political Geography (London: Methuen, second edition, 1966), p. 711; National Economic and Development Authority, Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1986 (Manila, 1987), p. 278.
28. Philippines Statistical Yearbook 1986, pp. 278-80.
29. In 1990, average population densities, in persons per square kilometre, were as follows: Philippines: 202; Luzon, 286; Cebu, 520; Negros, Leyte and Bohol all above 225; Mindanao, 136; cf. Rodolphe De Koninck, L'Asie du Sud-Est (Paris: Masson, 1994), p. 103.
30. To facilitate the comparison between the two dates, the base maps have been standardized, that is aligned on the provincial divisions as they stood in 1990. Recent editions of the Philippines Statistical Yearbook do in fact provide figures on the basis of that contemporary provincial breakdown.
31. See, for example, Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements; Joan Hardjono, Transmigration in Indonesia (Jakarta: Oxford University Press, 1977) and "The Indonesian Transmigration Programme in Historical Perspective", International Migration 26, 4 (1988): 427-38; Daniel Benoit, P. Levang, M. Pain and O. Sevin, Transmigration and Spontaneous Migrations in Indonesia (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, Departemen Transmigrasi, 1989); Muriel Charras and Marc Pain, M. (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia: Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, CNRS and Departemen Transmigrasi, 1993).
32. See, for example, Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements; Joan Hardjono, Transmigration in Indonesia (Jakarta: Oxford University Press, 1977) and "The Indonesian Transmigration Programme in Historical Perspective", International Migration 26, 4 (1988): 427-38; Daniel Benoit, P. Levang, M. Pain and O. Sevin, Transmigration and Spontaneous Migrations in Indonesia (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, Departemen Transmigrasi, 1989); Muriel Charras and Marc Pain, M. (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia: Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, CNRS and Departemen Transmigrasi, 1993).
33. See, for example, Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements; Joan Hardjono, Transmigration in Indonesia (Jakarta: Oxford University Press, 1977) and "The Indonesian Transmigration Programme in Historical Perspective", International Migration 26, 4 (1988): 427-38; Daniel Benoit, P. Levang, M. Pain and O. Sevin, Transmigration and Spontaneous Migrations in Indonesia (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, Departemen Transmigrasi, 1989); Muriel Charras and Marc Pain, M. (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia: Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, CNRS and Departemen Transmigrasi, 1993).
34. See, for example, Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements; Joan Hardjono, Transmigration in Indonesia (Jakarta: Oxford University Press, 1977) and "The Indonesian Transmigration Programme in Historical Perspective", International Migration 26, 4 (1988): 427-38; Daniel Benoit, P. Levang, M. Pain and O. Sevin, Transmigration and Spontaneous Migrations in Indonesia (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, Departemen Transmigrasi, 1989); Muriel Charras and Marc Pain, M. (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia: Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, CNRS and Departemen Transmigrasi, 1993).
35. See, for example, Pelzer, Pioneer Settlements; Joan Hardjono, Transmigration in Indonesia (Jakarta: Oxford University Press, 1977) and "The Indonesian Transmigration Programme in Historical Perspective", International Migration 26, 4 (1988): 427-38; Daniel Benoit, P. Levang, M. Pain and O. Sevin, Transmigration and Spontaneous Migrations in Indonesia (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, Departemen Transmigrasi, 1989); Muriel Charras and Marc Pain, M. (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia: Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra (Paris and Jakarta: ORSTOM, CNRS and Departemen Transmigrasi, 1993).
36. Benoit et al., Transmigration, p. 106.
37. Marcel Le Glay, "La Gaule romanisée", in Histoire de la France rurale, ed. Georges Duby et al. (Paris: Seuil, vol. 1, 1975), pp. 195-285 (239).
38. Owen Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China (London: Oxford University Press, 1940); Studies in Frontier History. Collected Papers 1928-1958 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962).
39. Owen Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China (London: Oxford University Press, 1940); Studies in Frontier History. Collected Papers 1928-1958 (London: Oxford University Press, 1962).
40. Augustin Berque, La rizière et la banquise. Colonisation et changement culturel à Hokkaido (Paris: Publications Orientalistes de France, 1980), p. 64.
41. Ibid., p. 65.
42. Karl Fassbender and Susanne Erbe, Towards a New Home: Indonesia's Managed Mass Migration. Transmigration between Poverty, Economics and Ecology (Hamburg: Verlag Weltarchiv GmbH, 1990), p. 30.
43. Marcus Colchester, "The Struggle for Land. Tribal Peoples in the Face of the Transmigration Programme", The Ecologist 16, 2-3 (1986): 99-110.
44. World Bank, Indonesia Transmigration Sector Review (Washington, D.C., 1990); see also Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia, ed. Muriel Charras and Marc Pain.
45. World Bank, Indonesia Transmigration Sector Review (Washington, D.C., 1990); see also Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia, ed. Muriel Charras and Marc Pain.
46. Muriel Charras, "L'Indonésie: le premier archipel du monde", in Asie du Sud-Est, Océanie, ed. Benoit Antheaume et al. (Paris: Belin, 1995), pp. 42-76 (51 and 67); Graeme J. Hugo, Terence H. Hull, Valerie J. Hull and Gavin W. Jones, The Demographic Dimension in Indonesian Development (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 196.
47. Muriel Charras, "L'Indonésie: le premier archipel du monde", in Asie du Sud-Est, Océanie, ed. Benoit Antheaume et al. (Paris: Belin, 1995), pp. 42-76 (51 and 67); Graeme J. Hugo, Terence H. Hull, Valerie J. Hull and Gavin W. Jones, The Demographic Dimension in Indonesian Development (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 196.
48. De Koninck, L'Asie du Sud-Est, p. 134. This refers to actual land devoted to agriculture and does not take into account the increase in cropped land, resulting essentially from the increase in the practice of annual double cropping of rice.
49. Booth, Agricultural Development, p. 41.
50. Ibid., pp. 43-44.
51. These statements concern the large islands and groups of islands and not necessarily all components of the latter. Some islands (such as Bali), provinces (such as Southeast Sulawesi) or kabupaten (such as Jayapura in Irian Jaya), have been the object of specific and different forms of demographic evolution.
52. Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 290; Widjojo Nitisastro, Population Trends in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), p. 62.
53. Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 290; Widjojo Nitisastro, Population Trends in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), p. 62.
54. Daniel Benoit and Olivier Sevin, "L'émigration javanaise: mythes et réalités", Annales de géographie 571 (1993): 255-76.
55. Hugo et al., The Demographic Dimension, p. 106.
56. Le Thanh Khoi, Histoire du Viet Nam des origines à 1858 (Paris: Sudestasie, 1981).
57. Gerald C. Hickey, Sons of the Mountains. Ethnohistory of the Vietnamese Central Highlands to 1954 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 309 sq.; Ron Hill, "Primitives to Peasants?: The Sedentarisation of the Nomads in Vietnam", Pacific Viewpoint 26, 2 (1985): 449-57.
58. Gerald C. Hickey, Sons of the Mountains. Ethnohistory of the Vietnamese Central Highlands to 1954 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 309 sq.; Ron Hill, "Primitives to Peasants?: The Sedentarisation of the Nomads in Vietnam", Pacific Viewpoint 26, 2 (1985): 449-57.
59. See, for example, the map entitled "Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia", in Frank M. LeBar, Gerald C. Hickey, John K. Musgrave and Robert Lee Williams, Ethnic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964). A simplified version can be found in De Koninck, "The Peasantry as the Territorial Spearhead".
60. Pierre Gourou, L'Asie (Paris: Hachette, fourth edition, 1964), p. 330.
61. Gerald Cannon Hickey, Free in the Forest: Ethnohistory of the Vietnamese Central Highlands 1954-1975 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 6.
62. Gavin W. Jones and Stewart E. Fraser, "Population Resettlement Policies in Vietnam", in Population Resettlement Programs in Southeast Asia, ed. G.W. Jones and H.V. Richter (Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre, Monograph 30, 1982), p. 115.
63. The Far East and Australasia 1993 (London: Europa Publications, 1993), p. 956.
64. The 1926 figures and the location of the 1926 provincial boundaries relied on to compile Table 3 and to draft Figure 2 were drawn from J. Bouault, Géographie de l'Indochine (Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient, 1930). In Bouault's book, no single map represents the provincial divisions for the whole of what corresponds to contemporary Vietnam. Rather, different maps provide the information separately, for portions of what was then Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina; furthermore these maps are drawn at different scales varying between 1: 3,300,300 and 1: 5,000,000. However, Bouault's maps seem to have been carefully drawn and although it is obvious that, in adapting them, we had to resort to some amount of approximation, we are confident that the final result is reasonably reliable. It should also be noted that, to facilitate the comparison between the 1926 and 1991 maps, the international boundaries of Vietnam were standardized, for the two maps, on the basis of the 1991 one. The regrouping of the 1926 provinces (Table 3) along the lines of the seven contemporary regions also entailed a number of small adjustments.
65. Region V includes four provinces: Kon Tum, Gia Lai, Dac Lac and Lam Dong; it corresponds, roughly, to the area which, in 1926, encompassed the three provinces of Kon Tum (since divided into Kon Tum and Gia Lai), Darlac (today's Dac Lac) and Haut Donnai, the sizes and boundaries of all these provinces having been modified since.
66. In 1991, population densities, as measured in persons per square kilometer, varied between 72 (Lam Dong) and 24 (Kon Tum), with a regional average of 50, versus 207 for the country as a whole.
67. Although Vietnamese Government officials remain vague about future expansion prospects, evidence from the ground, as seen by the first author on the occasion of field visits to several N.E.Z. during April and May 1995, seems to indicate that such prospects are substantial.
68. Grant Evans, "Internal Colonialism in the Central Highlands of Vietnam", Sojourn. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 9, 1 (1992): 274-304; Rodolphe De Koninck, Tran Dac Dan, Yann Roche and Olivier Lundquist, "Les fronts pionniers du Centre du Vietnam: évolution démographique et empreinte toponymique", Annales de géographie 105, 590 (1996): 395-412; De Koninck, "The Peasantry as the Territorial Spearhead".
69. Grant Evans, "Internal Colonialism in the Central Highlands of Vietnam", Sojourn. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 9, 1 (1992): 274-304; Rodolphe De Koninck, Tran Dac Dan, Yann Roche and Olivier Lundquist, "Les fronts pionniers du Centre du Vietnam: évolution démographique et empreinte toponymique", Annales de géographie 105, 590 (1996): 395-412; De Koninck, "The Peasantry as the Territorial Spearhead".
70. Grant Evans, "Internal Colonialism in the Central Highlands of Vietnam", Sojourn. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 9, 1 (1992): 274-304; Rodolphe De Koninck, Tran Dac Dan, Yann Roche and Olivier Lundquist, "Les fronts pionniers du Centre du Vietnam: évolution démographique et empreinte toponymique", Annales de géographie 105, 590 (1996): 395-412; De Koninck, "The Peasantry as the Territorial Spearhead".
71. FAO Production Yearbook 1992.
72. Rodolphe De Koninck, Le monde à la carte (Quebec: Fischer Presses, volume II, third edition, 1995).
73. Leslie E. Small, "Historical Development of the Greater Chao Phrya Water Control Project: an Economic Appraisal", Journal of the Siam Society 61, 1 (1973): 1-24;
74. David B. Johnston, "Opening a Frontier. The Expansion of Rice Cultivation in Central Thailand in the 1890's", Contributions to Asian Studies 9 (1976): 27-44;
75. David Feeny, The Political Economy of Productivity. Thai Agricultural Development, 1880-1975 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982).
76. Some official sources are even more "generous" concerning Thailand's agricultural land. As indicated in Table 3, according to the FAO, in 1991 total agricultural area stood at slightly over 23 million hectares (or 45.1 per cent of the country's total land area); however, according to the Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), it had reached more than twenty-nine million hectares (or 57 per cent of the country's total land area). Drawn from satellite imagery, the latter figures probably include fallow land. Not infrequently, data compiled from satellite imagery and aerial photography tend to overestimate the amount of land devoted to agriculture. "Because cloud cover is at its minimum in the dry season, aerial photography and satellite image surveys are generally conducted in that season. Given that much of the cropping in Thailand is rain fed, it is difficult in the dry season to distinguish between areas that were cropped in the previous wet season and areas that were fallow; thus the tendency for these surveys to overestimate the area under cultivation": see David Feeny, "Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion in Thailand. 1900-1975", in World Deforestation in the Twentieth Century, ed. J. F. Richards and R. P. Tucker (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1988), p. 282.
77. FAO Production Yearbook 1993; De Koninck, L'Asie du Sud-Est, p. 293. See also Table 6.
78. FAO Production Yearbook 1993; De Koninck, L'Asie du Sud-Est, p. 293. See also Table 6.
79. Randolph Barker, Robert W. Herdt and Beth Rose, The Rice Economy of Asia (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1985), p. 98; W orld Bank, World Development Report 1994. Infrastructure for Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
80. Randolph Barker, Robert W. Herdt and Beth Rose, The Rice Economy of Asia (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1985), p. 98; W orld Bank, World Development Report 1994. Infrastructure for Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
81. Robert J. Muscat, The Fifth Tiger. A Study of Thai Development Policy (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 233.
82. Harald Uhlig, "Spontaneous and Planned Settlement in South-East Asia", in Agricultural Expansion and Pioneer Settlements in the Humid Tropics, ed. Walther Manshard and William B. Morgan (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988), p. 13.
83. Detailed and reliable figures per province and region are hard to come by. It is at least possible to calculate that, between 1939 and 1985, the Northeast's share of the nation's rice land has increased from 31 to 50 per cent. See Robert L. Pendleton, "Land Use in Northeastern Thailand", Geographical Review 33, 1 (1943): 15-41 and Statistical Yearbook 1987-88 Thailand (Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1988).
84. Detailed and reliable figures per province and region are hard to come by. It is at least possible to calculate that, between 1939 and 1985, the Northeast's share of the nation's rice land has increased from 31 to 50 per cent. See Robert L. Pendleton, "Land Use in Northeastern Thailand", Geographical Review 33, 1 (1943): 15-41 and Statistical Yearbook 1987-88 Thailand (Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1988).
85. Constance Wilson, Thailand. A Handbook of Historical Statistics (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983), pp. 32-34 and 1990 Population and Housing Census (Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1992).
86. Constance Wilson, Thailand. A Handbook of Historical Statistics (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983), pp. 32-34 and 1990 Population and Housing Census (Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1992).
87. e s. Premier essor de l'économie européenne (Paris: Gallimard, 1973); L'économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans l'Occident médiéval (Paris: Flammarion, 2 vol., 1977).
88. e s. Premier essor de l'économie européenne (Paris: Gallimard, 1973); L'économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans l'Occident médiéval (Paris: Flammarion, 2 vol., 1977).
89. e s. Premier essor de l'économie européenne (Paris: Gallimard, 1973); L'économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans l'Occident médiéval (Paris: Flammarion, 2 vol., 1977).
90. e s. Premier essor de l'économie européenne (Paris: Gallimard, 1973); L'économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans l'Occident médiéval (Paris: Flammarion, 2 vol., 1977).
91. Uhlig, "Spontaneous and Planned Settlement in South-East Asia", p. 14.
92. Larry Lohman, "Land, Power and Forest Colonization in Thailand", in The Struggle for Land and the Fate of the Forest, ed. Marcus Colchester and Larry Lohman (London: Zed Books, 1993), pp. 198-227 (207).
93. David Feeny, The Political Economy, p. 80 sq; see also Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 490; Philip Hirsch, "Deforestation and Development in Thailand", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 8, 2 (1987): 129-38 (137) and "Spontaneous Land Settlement", p. 366.
94. David Feeny, The Political Economy, p. 80 sq; see also Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 490; Philip Hirsch, "Deforestation and Development in Thailand", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 8, 2 (1987): 129-38 (137) and "Spontaneous Land Settlement", p. 366.
95. David Feeny, The Political Economy, p. 80 sq; see also Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 490; Philip Hirsch, "Deforestation and Development in Thailand", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 8, 2 (1987): 129-38 (137) and "Spontaneous Land Settlement", p. 366.
96. David Feeny, The Political Economy, p. 80 sq; see also Fisher, South-East Asia, p. 490; Philip Hirsch, "Deforestation and Development in Thailand", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 8, 2 (1987): 129-38 (137) and "Spontaneous Land Settlement", p. 366.
97. Raymond Blanadet, L'Asie du Sud-Est. Nouvelle puissance économique (Nancy: Presses Universitaires de Nancy, 1992), p. 262.
98. These contrasts are not evident on Figure 4, because of the scale and of the population density categories used. But they definitely are when population distribution is represented with more precision. See, for example, W. G. East, O. H. K. Spate and Charles A. Fisher, The Changing Map of Asia, 5th ed. (London: Methuen, 1971), p. 246 and Warwick Neville, "The Distribution of Population in Southeast Asia", New Zealand Journal of Geography (Oct. 1990): 2-7.
99. These contrasts are not evident on Figure 4, because of the scale and of the population density categories used. But they definitely are when population distribution is represented with more precision. See, for example, W. G. East, O. H. K. Spate and Charles A. Fisher, The Changing Map of Asia, 5th ed. (London: Methuen, 1971), p. 246 and Warwick Neville, "The Distribution of Population in Southeast Asia", New Zealand Journal of Geography (Oct. 1990): 2-7.
100. See, for example, as already mentioned, Augustin Berque, La rizière et la banquise. Colonisation et changement culturel à Hokkaido, p. 64 and Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State Making", pp. 3-83.
101. See, for example, as already mentioned, Augustin Berque, La rizière et la banquise. Colonisation et changement culturel à Hokkaido, p. 64 and Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State Making", pp. 3-83.
102. Rodolphe De Koninck, "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia", Hérodote 21 (1981): 84-115; "Les politiques du développement agricole en Malaysia ou l'impatience de l'État tutélaire", Archipel 31 (1986): 131-53.
103. Rodolphe De Koninck, "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia", Hérodote 21 (1981): 84-115; "Les politiques du développement agricole en Malaysia ou l'impatience de l'État tutélaire", Archipel 31 (1986): 131-53.
104. See, for example, M. A. Martin, Le mal cambodgien (Paris: Hachette, 1989).
105. See, for example, Les paysans du delta tonkinois (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1936); La terre et l'homme en Extrême-Orient (Paris: Colin, 1940); Riz et civilisation (Paris: Fayard, 1984).
106. See, for example, Les paysans du delta tonkinois (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1936); La terre et l'homme en Extrême-Orient (Paris: Colin, 1940); Riz et civilisation (Paris: Fayard, 1984).
107. See, for example, Les paysans du delta tonkinois (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1936); La terre et l'homme en Extrême-Orient (Paris: Colin, 1940); Riz et civilisation (Paris: Fayard, 1984).
108. Repeatedly made in the above-mentioned works as well as in L'utilisation du sol en Indochine Française (Paris: Centre de politique étrangère, 1940), Les pays tropicaux (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1947) and L'Asie (Paris: Hachette, 1953).
109. Repeatedly made in the above-mentioned works as well as in L'utilisation du sol en Indochine Française (Paris: Centre de politique étrangère, 1940), Les pays tropicaux (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1947) and L'Asie (Paris: Hachette, 1953).
110. Repeatedly made in the above-mentioned works as well as in L'utilisation du sol en Indochine Française (Paris: Centre de politique étrangère, 1940), Les pays tropicaux (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1947) and L'Asie (Paris: Hachette, 1953).
111. See, for example, Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia", p. 397, referring to Clifford Geertz's Agricultural Involution: The Processes of Agricultural Change in Indonesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).
112. See, for example, Hirschman, "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia", p. 397, referring to Clifford Geertz's Agricultural Involution: The Processes of Agricultural Change in Indonesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).
113. Charles Hirschman emphasizes this point in his "Population and Society in Twentieth-Century Southeast Asia", pp. 398, 399 and 408.
114. Ibid., p. 414.
115. Ibid., p. 407 sq.
116. See, for example, David S. Gibbons, Rodolphe De Koninck and Ibrahim Hasan, Agricultural Modernization, Poverty and Inequality (Farnborough: Saxon House, 1980), p. 15;
117. Charras and Pain (eds.), Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia, p. 74.
118. See, for example, De Koninck (ed.), The Challenge of the Forest in Southeast Asia; or Stéphane Bernard and Rodolphe De Koninck, "The Retreat of the Forest in Southeast Asia: A Cartographic Assessment", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 17, 1 (1996): 1-14.
119. See, for example, De Koninck (ed.), The Challenge of the Forest in Southeast Asia; or Stéphane Bernard and Rodolphe De Koninck, "The Retreat of the Forest in Southeast Asia: A Cartographic Assessment", Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 17, 1 (1996): 1-14.
120. Frédéric Durand, Les forêts en Asie du Sud-Est. Recul et exploitation: le cas de l'Indonésie (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994).
121. David Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992); Wilfrido D. Cruz and Maria C. Cruz, "Population Pressure and Deforestation in the Philippines", ASEAN Economic Bulletin 7, 2 (1990): 200-212; Stéphane Bernard, "Le défi forestier dans la péninsule malaise" (M.A. diss., Université Laval, Québec, 1995).
122. David Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992); Wilfrido D. Cruz and Maria C. Cruz, "Population Pressure and Deforestation in the Philippines", ASEAN Economic Bulletin 7, 2 (1990): 200-212; Stéphane Bernard, "Le défi forestier dans la péninsule malaise" (M.A. diss., Université Laval, Québec, 1995).
123. David Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992); Wilfrido D. Cruz and Maria C. Cruz, "Population Pressure and Deforestation in the Philippines", ASEAN Economic Bulletin 7, 2 (1990): 200-212; Stéphane Bernard, "Le défi forestier dans la péninsule malaise" (M.A. diss., Université Laval, Québec, 1995).
124. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
125. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
126. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
127. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
128. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
129. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
130. See, for example, Jean Boulbet, Paysans de la forêt (Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975); Michael Dove, "Theories of Swidden Agriculture and the Political Economy of Ignorance", Agroforestry Systems 1 (1983): 85-99. Hirsch, Deforestation and Development, p. 6; T hai Forestry Sector Master Plan. Subsectorial Plan for People and Forestry Environment (Bangkok: Royal Forestry Department, 1993), p. 17; Feeny, Agricultural Expansion and Forest Depletion, p. 121; Orawan Kooachoraen and Darunee Paisarnpanichul, "Promotion of Commercial Crop Cultivation", in The Future of People and Forests in Thailand after the Logging Ban, ed. Pinkaew Leungaramsri and Noel Rajesh (Bangkok: Project for Ecological Recovery, 1992), pp. 88 and 94; Do Dinh San, Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam. Its Social, Economic and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1992), p. 37.
131. J. E. Spencer, Shifting Cultivation in Southeastern Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 3. Concerning the advantages for the State to "widen access to land", to sedentarize the nomads, to "extend the tax base" and to control migration for those very purposes, see Bremen, Labour Migration, pp. 4, 5 and 72.
132. J. E. Spencer, Shifting Cultivation in Southeastern Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 3. Concerning the advantages for the State to "widen access to land", to sedentarize the nomads, to "extend the tax base" and to control migration for those very purposes, see Bremen, Labour Migration, pp. 4, 5 and 72.
133. Roger Brunet and Olivier Dollfus, Mondes nouveaux (Paris: Hachette, 1990), p. 63. In French, the statement reads as follows: "L'État est panoptique: il aime voir ceux qu'il aime et surtout ceux qui ne l'aiment pas". This need for the modern State to territorialize its control was emphasized several times by Rodolphe De Koninck. See for example "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia"; "Pourquoi les paysans? Interrogations sur la territorialité de l'agriculture familiale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 29, 73-74 (1984): 261-74; "La paysannerie comme fer de lance territorial de l'État: le cas de la Malaysia", Cahiers des sciences humaines (ORSTOM) 22, 3-4 (1986): 355-70; "Qui a peur de la forêt? Les véritables enjeux de la forêt tropicale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 36, 99 (1992): 503-514. With specific reference to the forest realm, see Nancy Lee Peluso, Peter Vandergeest and Lesley Potter, "Social Aspects of Forestry in Southeast Asia: A Review of Postwar Trends in the Scholarly Literature", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26, 1 (1995): 196-218.
134. Roger Brunet and Olivier Dollfus, Mondes nouveaux (Paris: Hachette, 1990), p. 63. In French, the statement reads as follows: "L'État est panoptique: il aime voir ceux qu'il aime et surtout ceux qui ne l'aiment pas". This need for the modern State to territorialize its control was emphasized several times by Rodolphe De Koninck. See for example "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia"; "Pourquoi les paysans? Interrogations sur la territorialité de l'agriculture familiale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 29, 73-74 (1984): 261-74; "La paysannerie comme fer de lance territorial de l'État: le cas de la Malaysia", Cahiers des sciences humaines (ORSTOM) 22, 3-4 (1986): 355-70; "Qui a peur de la forêt? Les véritables enjeux de la forêt tropicale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 36, 99 (1992): 503-514. With specific reference to the forest realm, see Nancy Lee Peluso, Peter Vandergeest and Lesley Potter, "Social Aspects of Forestry in Southeast Asia: A Review of Postwar Trends in the Scholarly Literature", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26, 1 (1995): 196-218.
135. Roger Brunet and Olivier Dollfus, Mondes nouveaux (Paris: Hachette, 1990), p. 63. In French, the statement reads as follows: "L'État est panoptique: il aime voir ceux qu'il aime et surtout ceux qui ne l'aiment pas". This need for the modern State to territorialize its control was emphasized several times by Rodolphe De Koninck. See for example "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia"; "Pourquoi les paysans? Interrogations sur la territorialité de l'agriculture familiale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 29, 73-74 (1984): 261-74; "La paysannerie comme fer de lance territorial de l'État: le cas de la Malaysia", Cahiers des sciences humaines (ORSTOM) 22, 3-4 (1986): 355-70; "Qui a peur de la forêt? Les véritables enjeux de la forêt tropicale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 36, 99 (1992): 503-514. With specific reference to the forest realm, see Nancy Lee Peluso, Peter Vandergeest and Lesley Potter, "Social Aspects of Forestry in Southeast Asia: A Review of Postwar Trends in the Scholarly Literature", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26, 1 (1995): 196-218.
136. Roger Brunet and Olivier Dollfus, Mondes nouveaux (Paris: Hachette, 1990), p. 63. In French, the statement reads as follows: "L'État est panoptique: il aime voir ceux qu'il aime et surtout ceux qui ne l'aiment pas". This need for the modern State to territorialize its control was emphasized several times by Rodolphe De Koninck. See for example "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia"; "Pourquoi les paysans? Interrogations sur la territorialité de l'agriculture familiale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 29, 73-74 (1984):
137. Roger Brunet and Olivier Dollfus, Mondes nouveaux (Paris: Hachette, 1990), p. 63. In French, the statement reads as follows: "L'État est panoptique: il aime voir ceux qu'il aime et surtout ceux qui ne l'aiment pas". This need for the modern State to territorialize its control was emphasized several times by Rodolphe De Koninck. See for example "Enjeux et stratégies spatiales de l'État en Malaysia"; "Pourquoi les paysans? Interrogations sur la territorialité de l'agriculture familiale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 29, 73-74 (1984): 261-74; "La paysannerie comme fer de lance territorial de l'État: le cas de la Malaysia", Cahiers des sciences humaines (ORSTOM) 22, 3-4 (1986): 355-70; "Qui a peur de la forêt? Les véritables enjeux de la forêt tropicale", Cahiers de géographie du Québec 36, 99 (1992): 503-514. With specific reference to the forest realm, see Nancy Lee Peluso, Peter Vandergeest and Lesley Potter, "Social Aspects of Forestry in Southeast Asia: A Review of Postwar Trends in the Scholarly Literature", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26, 1 (1995): 196-218.