Reversible skin permeabilization for transdermal delivery of macromolecules

Critical Reviews in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 455-483

  Prausnitz, Mark R ^a  

^a Georgia Institute of Technology   (United States)

Author keywords

Electroporation; Iontophoresis; Liposome; Transdermal drug delivery; Ultrasound

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; ANGIOTENSIN; ARGIPRESSIN; CALCITONIN; DESMOPRESSIN; DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE; DODECYL SULFATE SODIUM; GONADORELIN; GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING FACTOR; INSULIN; LINOLEIC ACID; LIPOSOME; MELANIN; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NAFARELIN; OCTREOTIDE; OLEIC ACID;

DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG SOLUBILITY; DRUG UPTAKE; ELECTROPORATION; HUMAN; IONTOPHORESIS; MICROENCAPSULATION; MOLECULAR WEIGHT; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SKIN PENETRATION; SKIN PERMEABILITY; TRANSDERMAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; ULTRASOUND THERAPY;

EID: 0031439733     PISSN: 07434863     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/critrevtherdrugcarriersyst.v14.i4.30     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Robinson, J. R., Lee, V. H., Eds. Controlled Drug Delivery, Fundamentals and Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988.
2. Kost, J., Ed., Pulsed and Self-Regulated Drug Delivery, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990.
3. Cleland, J. L., Langer, R., Eds., Formulation and Delivery of Proteins and Peptides, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1994.
4. Bronaugh, R. L., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Percutaneous Absorption, Mechanisms - Methodology - Drug Delivery, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989.
5. Hadgraft, J., Guy, R. H., Eds., Transdermal Drug Delivery, Developmental Issues and Research Initiatives, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989.
6. Cullander, C., Guy, R. H., Transdermal delivery ofpeptides and proteins, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 8, 291, 1992.
7. Amsden, B. G., Goosen, M. F. A., Transdermal delivery of peptide and protein drugs: An overview, AIChE J., 41, 1972, 1995.
8. Smith, E. W., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.
9. Guy, R. H., Current status and future prospects of transdermal drug delivery, Pharm. Res., 13, 1765, 1996.
10. Physicians' Desk Reference, Medical Economics Data Production Company, Montvale, NJ, 1996.
11. Holbrook, K. A., Odland, G. F., Regional differences in the thickness (cell layers) of the human stratum corneum: An ultrastructural analysis, J. Invest. Derm., 62, 415, 1974.
12. Bronaugh, R. L., Stewart, R. F., Congdon, E. R., Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies II. Animal models for human skin, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 62, 481, 1982.
13. Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Comparative anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of mammalian skin, in Dermal and Ocular Toxicology, Hobson, D. W., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 3, 1991.
14. Champion, R. H., Burton, J. L., Ebling, F. J. G., Eds., Textbook of Dermatology, Blackwell Scientific, London, 1992.
15. Bouwstra, J. A., de Vries, M. A., Gooris, G. S., Bras, W., Brussee, J., Ponec, M., Thermodynamic and structural aspects of the skin barrier, J. Control. Release., 15, 209, 1991.
16. Elias, P. M., Epidermal barrier function: Intercellular lamellar lipid structures, origin, composition and metabolism, J. Control. Release., 15, 199, 1991.
17. Lampe, M. A., Burlingame, A. L., Whitney J., Williams, M. L., Brown, B. E., Roitman, E., Elias, P. M., Human stratum corneum lipids: Characterization and regional variations, J. Lipid Res., 24, 120, 1983.
18. Stryer, L., Biochemistry, W. H. Freeman, New York, 1988.
19. Michaels, A. S., Chandrasekaran, S. K., Shaw, J. E., Drug permeation through human skin: Theory and in vitro experimental measurement, AIChE J., 21, 985, 1975.
20. Nemanic, M. K., Elias, P. M., In situ precipitation: A novel cytochemical technique for visualization of permeability pathways in mammalian stratum corneum, J. Histochem. Cytochem., 28, 573, 1980.
21. Boddé, H. E., van den Brink, I., Koerten, H. K., de Haan, F. H. N., Visualization of in vitro percutaneous penetration of mercuric chloride, transport through intercellular space versus cellular uptake through desmosomes, J. Control. Release, 15, 227, 1991.
22. Edwards, D. A., Langer, R., A linear theory of transdermal transport phenomena, J. Pharm. Sci., 83, 1315, 1994.
23. Grimnes, S., Pathways of ionic flow through human skin in vivo, Acta Derm. Venereol. (Stockh), 64, 93, 1984.
24. Burnette, R. R., Ongpipattanakul, B., Characterization of the pore transport properties and tissue alteration of excised human skin during iontophoresis, J. Pharm. Sci., 77, 132, 1988.
25. Cullander, C., Guy, R. H., Visualization of iontophoretic pathways with confocal microscopy and the vibrating probe electrode, Solid State Ionics, 53-56, 197, 1992.
26. Cullander, C., What are the pathways of iontophoretic current flow through mammalian skin?, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 9, 119, 1992.
27. Scott, E. R., Laplaza, A. I., White, H. S., Phipps, J. B., Transport of ionic species in skin: Contribution of pores to the overall skin conductance, Pharm. Res., 10, 1699, 1993.
28. Kasting, G. B., Smith, R. L., Cooper, E. R., Effect of lipid solubility and molecular size on percutaneous absorption, in Skin Pharmacokinetics, Shroot, B., Schaefer, H., Eds., Karger, Basel, 138, 1987.
29. Tojo, K., Random brick model for drug transport across stratum corneum, J. Pharm. Sci., 76, 88, 1987.
30. Anderson, B. D., Raykar, P. V., Solute structure-permeability relationships in human stratum corneum, J. Invest. Dermatol., 93, 280, 1989.
31. Potts, R. O., Guy, R. H., Predicting skin permeability, Pharm. Res., 9, 663, 1992.
32. Harrison, J. E., Watkinson, A. C., Green, D. M., Hadgraft, J., Brain, K., The relative effect of azone and transcutol on permeant diffusivity and solubility in human stratum corneum, Pharm. Res., 13, 542, 1996.
33. Scheuplein, R. J., Blank, I., H., Permeability of the skin, Physiol. Rev., 51, 702, 1971.
34. Elias, P. M., Epidermal lipids, membranes, and keratinization, Int. J. Dermatol., 20, 1, 1981.
35. Flynn, G. L., Mechanism of percutaneous absorption from physicochemical evidence, in Percutaneous Absorption, Bronaugh, R. L., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 27, 1989.
36. Yamashita, F., Bando, H., Koyama, Y., Kitagawa, S., Takakura, Y., Hashida, M., In vivo and in vitro analysis of skin penetration enhancement based on a two-layer diffusion model with polar and nonpolar routes in the stratum corneum, Pharm. Res., 11, 185, 1994.
37. Yoneto, K., Li, S. K., Ghanem, A. H., Crommelin, D. J., Higuchi, W. I., A mechanistic study of the effects of 1-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones on bilayer permeability of stratum corneum lipid liposomes: A comparison with hairless mouse skin studies. J. Pharm Sci., 84, 853, 1995.
38. Illel, B., Schaefer, H., Wepierre, J., Doucet, O., Follicles play an important role in percutaneous absorption, J. Pharm. Sci., 80, 424, 1991.
39. Hueber, F., Wepierre, J., Schaefer, H., Role of transepidermal and transfollicular routes in percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone and testosterone: In vivo study in the hairless rat, Skin Pharmacol., 5, 99, 1992.
40. Santus, G. C., Baker, R. W., Transdermal enhancer patent literature, J. Control. Release, 25, 1, 1993.
41. Walker, R. B., Smith, E. W., The role of percutaneous penetration enhancers, Adv. Drug Deliv. Reviews, 18, 295, 1996.
42. Kastin, A. J., Arimura, A., Schally, A. V., Topical absorption of polypeptides with dimethylsufloxide, Arch. Derm., 93, 471, 1966.
43. Kazim, M., Weber, C., Strausberg, L., LaForet, G., Nicholson, J., Reemtsma, K., Treatment of diabetes in mice with topical aplication of insulin to the skin, Diabetes, 33, 181A, 1984.
44. Coapman, S. D., Lichtin, J. L., Sakr, A., Schlitz, J. R., Studies of the penetration of native collagen, collagen alpha chains and collagen cyanogen bromide peptides through hairless mouse skin in vitro, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem., 39, 275, 1988.
45. Banerjee, P. S., Ritschel, W. A., Transdermal permeation of vasopressin. I. Influence of pH, concentration, shaving and surfactant on in vitro permeation, Int. J. Pharm., 49, 189, 1989.
46. Banerjee, P. S., Ritschel, W. A., Transdermal peermeation of vasopressin. II. Influence of Azone on in vitro and in vivo permeation, Int. J. Pharm., 49, 199, 1989.
47. Boddé, H. E., Verhoef, J. C., Ponec, M., Transdermal peptide delivery, Biochem. Soc. Trans., 17, 943, 1989.
48. Mazer, N. A., Pharmacological and biophysical considerations in polypeptide delivery: Input functions and routes of administration, J. Pharm. Sci., 78, 885, 1989.
49. Choi, H. K., Flynn, G. L., Amidon, G. L., Transdermal delivery of bioactive peptides: The effect on n-decyl methyl sulfoxide, pH, and inhibitors on enkaphalin metabolism and transport, Pharm. Res., 7, 1099, 1990.
50. Hoogstraate, A. J., Verhoef, J., Brussee, J., Ijzerman, A. P., Spies, F., Boddé, H. E., Kinetics, ultrastructural aspects and molecular modelling of transdermal peptide flux enhancement by N-alkulazacycloheptanones, Int. J. Pharm, 76, 37, 1991.
51. Braun-Falco, O., Korting, H. C., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Liposome Dermatics, Springer, Berlin, 1992.
52. Gregoriadis, G., Ed., Liposome Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1992.
53. Schmid, M.-H., Korting, H. C., Liposomes: A drug carrier system for topical treatment in dermatology, Crit. Rev. Therap. Drug Carrier Systems, 11, 153, 1994.
54. Schreier, H., Bouwstra, J., Liposomes and niosomes as topical drug carriers: Dermal and transdermal drug delivery, J. Control Release, 30, 1, 1994.
55. Lasch, J., Laub, R., Wohlrab, W., How deep do intact liposomes penetrate into human skin?, J. Control. Release, 18, 55, 1991.
56. Schaller, M., Korting, H. C., Interaction of liposomes with human skin: The role of the stratum corneum, Adv. Drug Deliv. Reviews, 18, 303, 1996.
57. Bouwstra, J. A., Hofland, H. E. L., Spies, F., Gooris, B. S., Junginger, H. E., Changes in the structure of the human stratum corneum induced by liposomes, in Liposome Dermatics, Braun-Falco, O., Korting, H. C., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Springer, Berlin, 121, 1992.
58. Touitou, E., Junginger, H. E., Weiner, N. D., Nagai, T., Mezei, M., Liposomes as carriers for topical and transdermal delivery, J. Pharm. Sci., 83, 1189, 1994.
59. Lauer, A. C., Lieb, L. M., Ramachandran, C., Flynn, G. L., Weiner, N. D., Transfullicular drug delivery, Pharm. Res., 12, 179, 1995.
60. Cevc, G., Blume, G., Lipid vesicles penetrate into intact skin owing to the transdermal osmotic gradients and hydration force, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1104, 226, 1992.
61. Cevc, G., Blume, G., Schätzlein, A., Gebauer, D., Paul, A., The skin: a pathway for systemic treatment with patches and lipid-based agent carriers, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 18, 349, 1996.
62. Egbaria, K., Ramachandran, C., Weiner, N., Topical application of liposomally entrapped cyclosporin evaluated by in vitro diffusion studies with human skin, Skin Pharmacol., 4, 21, 1991.
63. Yarosh, D., Alas, L., Yee, V., Oberyszyn, A., Kibitel, J., Mitchell, D., Rosenstein, R., Spinowitz, A., Citron, M., Pyrimidine dimer removal enhanced by DNA repair liposomes reduces the incidence of UV skin cancer in mice, Cancer Res., 52, 4227, 1992.
64. Masini, V., Bonte, F., Meybeck, A., Wepierre, J., Cutaneous bioavailability in hairless rats of tretinoin in liposomes or gel,. J. Pharm. Sci., 82, 17, 1993.
65. Niemiec, S., Ramachandran, C., Weiner, N., Influence of nonionic liposomal composition on topical delivery of peptide drugs into pilosebaceous units: An in vivo study using the hamster ear model, Pharm. Res., 12, 1184, 1995.
66. Yarosh, D., Bucana, C., Cox, P., Alas, L., Kibitel, J., Kripke, M., Localization of liposomes containing a DNA repair enzyme in murine skin, J. Invest. Dermatol., 103, 461, 1994.
67. Du Plessis, J., Egbaria, K., Rachmadnran, C., Weiner, N., Topical delivery of liposomally encapsulated gamma-interferon, Antiviral Res., 18, 259, 1992.
68. Li, L., Lishko, V., Hoffman, R. M., Liposomes can specifically target entrapped melanin to hair follicles in histocultured skin, In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol., 29A, 192, 1993.
69. Miyachi, Y., Imamura, S., Niwa, Y., Decreased skin superoxide dismutase activity by a single exposure of ultraviolet radiation is reduced by liposomal superoxide dismutase pretreatment, J. Invest. Dermatol., 89, 111, 1987.
70. Balsari, A. L., Morelli, D., Menard, S., Veronesi, U., Colnaghi, M. I., Protection against doxorubicin-induced alopecia in rats by liposome-entrapped monoclonal antibodies, FASEB J., 8, 226, 1994.
71. Li, L., Lishko, V., Hoffman, R. M., Liposome targeting of high molecular weight DNA to the hair follicles of histocultured skin: A model for gene therapy of the hair growth processes, In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol., 29A, 258, 1993.
72. Lieb, L. M., Ramachandran, C., Egbaria, K., Weiner, N., Topical delivery enhancement with multilamellar liposomes via the pilosebaceous route: I. In vitro evaluation using fluorescent techniques with the hamster ear model, J. Invest. Dermatol., 99, 108, 1992.
73. Planas, M. E., Gonzalez, P., Rodriguez, L., Sanchez, S., Cevc, G., Noninvasive percutaneous induction of topical analgesia by a new type of drug carrier, and prolongation of the local pain insensitivity by anesthetic liposomes, Anesth. Analg., 75, 615, 1992.
74. Cevc, G., Dermal insulin, in Frontiers in Insulin Pharmacology, Berger, M., Gries, A., Eds., Stuttgart, Georg Thieme, 161, 1993.
75. Paul, A., Cevc, G., Bachhawat, B. K., Transdermal immunization with large proteins by means of ultradeformable drug carriers, Eur. J. Immunol., 25, 3521, 1995.
76. Bockris, J. O., Reddy, A. K. N., Modern Electrochemistry, Plenum Press, New York, 1970.
77. Pikal, M. J., The role of electroosmotic flow in transdermal iontophoresis, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 9, 201, 1992.
78. Srinivasan, V., Sims, S. M., Higuchi, W. I., Behl, C. R., Malick, A. W., Pons, S., Iontophoretic transport of drugs: A constant voltage approach, in Pulsed and Self-Regulated Drug Delivery, Kost, J., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 66, 1990.
79. Kasting, G. B., Theoretical models for iontophoretic delivery, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 9, 177, 1992.
80. Potts, R. O., Guy, R. H., Francoeur, M. L., Routes of ionic permeability through mammalian skin, Solid State Ionics, 53-56, 165, 1992.
81. Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Inman, A. O., Riviere, J. E., Identification of the pathway of iontophoretic drug delivery: Light and ultrastructural studies using mercuric chloride in pigs, Pharm. Res., 11, 251, 1994.
82. Stephens, W. G. S., The current-voltage relationship in human skin, Med. Electron. Biol. Eng., 1, 389, 1963.
83. Kasting, G. B., Bowman, L. A., DC electrical properties of frozen, excised human skin, Pharm. Res., 7, 134, 1990.
84. Pikal, M. J., Shah, S., Transport mechanisms in iontophoresis. III. An experimental study of the contributions of electroosmotic flow and permeability change in transport of low and high molecular weight solutes, Pharm. Res., 7, 222, 1990.
85. Dinh, S. M., Luo, C.-W., Berner, B., Upper and lower limits of human skin electrical resistance in iontophoresis, AIChE J., 39, 2011, 1993.
86. Oh, S. Y., Leung, L., Bommannan, D., Guy, R. H., Potts, R. O., Effect of current, ionic strength and temperature on the electrical properties of skin, J. Control. Release, 27, 115, 1993.
87. Inada, H., Ghanem, A.-H., Higuchi, W. I., Studies on the effects of applied voltage and duration on human epidermal membrane alteration/recovery and the resultant effects upon iontophoresis, Pharm. Res., 11, 687, 1994.
88. Prausnitz, M. R., The effects of electric current applied to the skin: A review for transdermal drug delivery, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 18, 395, 1996.
89. Sloan, J. B., Soltani, K., Iontophoresis in dermatology, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 15, 671, 1986.
90. Banga, A. K., Chien, Y. W., Iontophoretic delivery of drugs: Fundamentals, developments and biomedical applications, J. Control. Release, 7, 1, 1988.
91. Singh, J., Roberts, M. S., Transdermal delivery of drugs by iontophoresis: A review, Drug Design and Delivery, 4, 1, 1989.
92. Ledger, P. W., Skin biological issues in electrically enhanced transdermal delivery, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 9, 289, 1992.
93. Warwick, W. J., Huang, N. N., Waring, W. W., Cherian, A. G., Brown, I., Stejskal-Lorenz, E., Yeung, W. H., Duhon, G., Hill, J. G., Strominger, D., Evaluation of a cystic fibrosis screening system incorporating a miniature sweat stimulator and disposable chloride sensor, Clin. Chem., 32, 850, 1986.
94. Hölzle, E., Alberti, N., Long-term efficacy and side effects of tap water iontophoresis of palmoplantar hyperhidrosis - the usefulness of home therapy, Dermatologica, 175, 126, 1987.
95. Gangprosa, L. P., Iontophoresis in Dental Practice, Quintessence Publishing, Chicago, 1983.
96. Chien, Y. W., Lelawongs, P., Siddiqui, O., Sun, Y., Shi, W. M., Facilitated transdermal delivery of therapeutic peptides and proteins by iontophoretic delivery devices, J. Control. Release, 13, 263, 1990.
97. Lelawongs, P., Liu, J.-C., Siddiqui, O., Chien, Y. W., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of arginine-vasopressin (I): Physicochemical considerations, Int. J. Pharm, 56, 13, 1989.
98. Miller, L. L., Kolaskie, C. J., Smith, G. A., Rivier, J., Transdermal iontophoresis of gonadotropin-releasinghormone (LHRH) and two analogues, J. Pharm. Sci., 79, 490, 1989.
99. Heit, M. C., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Jayes, F. L., Riviere, J. E., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH): Effect of repeated administration, Pharm. Res., 11, 1000, 1994.
100. Thysman, S., Hanchard, C., Preat, V, Human calcitonin delivery in rats by iontophoresis, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 46, 725, 1994.
101. Kumar, S., Char, H., Patel, S., Piemontese, D., Malick, A. W., Iqbal, K., Neugroschel, E., Behl, C. R, In vivo transdermal iontophoretic delivery of growth hormone releasing factor GRF (1-44) in hairless guinea pigs, J. Control. Release, 18, 213, 1992.
102. Stephen, R. L., Petlenz, T. J., Jacobsen, S. C., Potential novel methods for insulin administration: I. Iontophoresis, Biomed. Biochim. Acta, 43, 553, 1984.
103. Kari, B., Control of glucose levels in alloxan-diabetic rabbits by iontophoresis of insulin, Diabetes, 35, 217, 1986.
104. Chien, Y. W., Siddiqui, O., Sun, Y., Shi, W. M., Liu, J. C., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of therapeutic peptides/proteins, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 507, 32, 1987.
105. Meyer, B. R., Katzeff, H. L., Eschbach, J. C., Trimmer, J., Zacharias, S. B., Rosen, S., Sibalis, D., Transdermal delivery of human insulin to albino rabbits using electrical current, Am. J. Med. Sci., 297, 321, 1989.
106. Meyer, B. R., Kreis, W., Eschbach, J., O'Mara, V., Rosen, S., Sibalis, D., Successful transdermal administration of therapeutic doses of a polypeptide to normal human volunteers, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 44, 607, 1988.
107. Meyer, B. R., Kreis, W., Eschbach, J., O'Mara, V., Rosen, S., Sibalis, D., Transdermal versus subcutaneous leuprolide: A comparison of acute pharmacodynamic effect, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 48, 340, 1990.
108. Srinivasan, V., Higuchi, W. I., Sims, S. M., Ghanem, A. H., Behl, C. R., Transdermal iontophoretic drug delivery: Mechanistic analysis and application to polypeptide delivery, J. Pharm. Sci., 78, 370, 1989.
109. Srinivasan, V., Su, M.-H., Higuchi, W. I., Behl, C. R., Iontophoresis of polypeptides: Effect of ethanol pretreatment of human skin, J. Pharm. Sci., 79, 588, 1990.
110. Chang, D. C., Chassy, B. M., Saunders, J. A., Sowers, A. E., Eds., Guide to Electroporation and Electrofusion, Academic Press, New York, 1992.
111. Orlowski, S., Mir, L. M., Cell electropermeabilization: A new tool for biochemical and pharmacological studies, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1154, 51, 1993.
112. Weaver, J. C., Electroporation: A general phenomenon for manipulating cells and tissues, J. Cell Biochem., 51, 426, 1993.
113. Prausnitz, M. R., Bose, V. G., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Transdermal drug delivery by electroporation, Proceed. Intern. Symp. Control. Rel. Bioact. Mater., 19, 232, 1992.
114. Prausnitz, M. R., Bose, V. G., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Electroporation of mammalian skin: A mechanism to enhance transdermal drug delivery, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 10504, 1993.
115. Chizmadzhev, Y. A., Zarnytsin, V. G., Weaver, J. C., Potts, R. O., Mechanism of electroinduced ionic species transport through a multilamellar lipid system, Biophys. J., 68, 749, 1995.
116. Edwards, D. A., Prausnitz, M. R., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Analysis of enhanced transdermal transport by skin electroporation, J. Control. Release, 34, 211, 1995.
117. Pliquett, U., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Changes in the passive electrical properties of human stratum corneum due to electroporation, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1239, 111, 1995.
118. Prausnitz, M. R., Lee, C. S., Liu, C. H., Pang, J. C., Singh, T.-P., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Transdermal transport efficiency during skin electroporation and iontophoresis, J. Control. Release, 38, 205, 1996.
119. Bose, V. G., Electrical Characterization of Electroporation of Human Stratum Corneum, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1994.
120. + permeability of excised nude mouse skin, J. Pharm. Sci., 77, 492, 1988.
121. Kalia, Y. N., Guy, R. H., The electrical characteristics of human skin in vivo, Pharm. Res., 12, 1605, 1995.
122. Bommannan, D., Leung, L., Tamada, J., Sharifi, J., Abraham, W., Potts, R. Transdermal delivery of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone: Comparison between electroporation and iontophoresis in vitro, Proceed. Intern. Symp. Control. Rel. Bioact. Mater., 20, 97, 1993.
123. Prausnitz, M. R., Seddick, D. S., Kon, A. A., Bose, V. G., Frankenburg, S., Klaus, S. N., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Methods for in vivo tissue electroporation using surface electrodes, Drug Delivery, 1, 125, 1993.
124. Vanbever, R., Lecouturier, N., Préat, V., Transdermal delivery of metoprolol by electroporation, Pharm. Res., 11, 1657, 1994.
125. Hofmann, G. A., Rustrum, W. V., Suder, K. S., Electro-incorporation of microcarriers as a method for the transdermal delivery of large molecules, Bioelectrochem. Bioenerg., 38, 209, 1995.
126. Prausnitz, M. R., Edelman, E. R., Gimm, J. A., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Transdermal delivery of heparin by skin electroporation, Bio/Technology, 13, 1205, 1995.
127. Prausnitz, M. R., Bose, V. G., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Electroporation, in Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers, Smith, E. W., Maibach, H. I., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 393, 1995.
128. Vanbever, R., Preat, V., Factors affecting transdermal delivery of metoprolol by electroporation, Bioelectrochem. Bioenerget., 38, 223, 1995.
129. Zewert, T. E., Pliquett, U. F., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Transdermal transport of DNA antisense oligonucleotides by electroporation, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Com., 212, 286, 1995.
130. Pliquett, U., Weaver, J. C., Electroporation of human skin: Simultaneous measurement of changes in the transport of two fluorescent molecules and in the passive electrical properties, Bioelectrochem. Bioenerget., 39, 1996.
131. Regnier, V., Le Doan, T., Laurent, M., Préat, V., Cutaneous delivery of oligonucleotides by electroporation, in Therapeutic Oligonucleotide Regulation of Gene Expression by Targeting Nucleic Acids: Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacology and Biological Applications, Rome, Italy, 9-12 June 1996.
132. Pliquett, U., Weaver, J. C., Transport of a charged molecule across the human epidermis due to electroporation, J. Control. Release, 38, 1, 1996.
133. Prausnitz, M. R., Electroporation, in Electronically Controlled Drug Delivery, Berner, B., Dinh, S. M., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, in press.
134. Prausnitz, M. R., Do high-voltage pulses cause changes in skin structure?, J. Control. Release, 40, 321, 1996.
135. Vanbever, R., Le Boulengé, E., Préat, V., Transdermal delivery of fentanyl by electroporation I. Influence of electrical factors, Pharm. Res., 13, 559, 1996.
136. Vanbever, R., De Morre, N., Préat, V., Transdermal delivery of fentanyl by electroporation. II. Mechanisms involved in drug transport, Pharm. Res., 13, 1359, 1996.
137. Prausnitz, M. R., Pliquett, U., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Rapid temporal control of trans-dermal drug delivery by electroporation, Pharm. Res., 11, 1834, 1994.
138. Pliquett, U., Zewart, T. E., Chen, T., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Imaging of fluorescent molecule and small ion transport through human stratum corneum during high voltage pulsing: Localized transport regions are involved, Biophys. Chem., 58, 185, 1996.
139. Prausnitz, M. R., Gimm, J. A., Guy, R. H., Langer, R., Weaver, J. C., Cullander, C., Imaging of transport pathways across human stratum corneum during high-voltage and low-voltage electrical exposures, J. Pharm. Sci., 85, 1363, 1996.
140. Riviere, J. E., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Rogers, R. A., Bommannan, D., Tamada, J. A., Potts, R. O., Pulsatile transdermal delivery of LHRH using electroporation: Drug delivery and skin toxicology, J. Control. Release, 36, 229, 1995.
141. Bommannan, D., Tamada, J., Leung, L., Potts, R. O., Effect of electroporation on transdermal iontophoretic delivery of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) in vitro, Pharm. Res., 11, 1809, 1994.
142. Tamada, J., Sharifi, J., Bommannan, D. B., Leung, L., Azimi, N., Abraham, W., Potts, R., Effect of electroporation on the iontophoretic delivery of peptides in vitro, Pharm. Res., 10, 8257, 1993.
143. Suslick, K. S., Ultrasound: Its Chemical, Physical, and Biological Effects, VCH, Deerfield Beach, FL, 1988.
144. Leighton, T. G., The Acoustic Bubble, Academic Press, London, 1994.
145. Stewart, H. F., Stratmeyer, M. E., An Overview of Ultrasound: Theory, Measurement, Medical Applications, and Biological Effects (FDA 82-8190), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, 1983.
146. Williams, A. R., Ultrasound: Biological Effects and Potential Hazards, Academic Press, New York, 1983.
147. Nyborg, W. L., Ziskin, M. C., Biological Effects of Ultrasound, Churchill Livingstone, New York, 1985.
148. Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound: I. Criteria Based on Thermal Mechanisms (NCRP Report No. 113), National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, MD, 1992.
149. Barnett, S. B., ter Haar, G. R., Ziskin, M. C., Nyborg, W. L., Maeda, K., Bang, J., Current status of research on biophysical effects of ultrasound., Ultrasound Med. Biol., 20, 205, 1994.
150. Mitragotri, S., Blankschtein, D., Langer, R., Ultrasound-mediated transdermal protein delivery, Science, 269, 850, 1995.
151. Antich, T. J., Phonophoresis: The principles of the ultrasonic driving force and efficacy in treatment of common orthopaedic diagnoses, J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther., 4, 99, 1982.
152. Kost, J., Levy, D., Langer, R., Ultrasound as a transdermal enhancer, in Percutaneous Absorption. Mechanisms - Methodology - Drug Delivery, Bronaugh, R. L., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 595, 1989.
153. Tyle, P., Agrawala, P., Drug delivery by phonophoresis, Pharm. Res., 6, 355, 1989.
154. Kost, J., Langer, R., Ultrasound-mediated transdermal drug delivery, in Topical Drug Bioavailability, Bioequivalence, and Penetration, Shah, V. P., Maibach, H. I., Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 91, 1993.
155. McElnay, J. C., Benson, H. A., Hadgraft, J., Murphy, T. M., The use of ultrasound in skin penetration enhancement, in Pharmaceutical Skin Penetration Enhancement, Walters, K. A., Hadgraft, J., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 293, 1993.
156. Camel, E., Ultrasound, in Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers, Smith, E. W., Maibach, H. I., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 369, 1995.
157. Flynn, H. G., Church, C., Transient pulsations of small gas bubbles in water., J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 84, 985, 1988.
158. Crum, L. A., Roy, R. A., Dinno, M. A., Church, C. C., Apfel, R. E., Holland, C. K., Madanshetty, S. I., Acoustic cavitation produced by microsecond pulses of ultrasound: A discussion of some selected results, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 91, 1113, 1992.
159. Holmes, S. A., Whitfield, H. N., The current status of lithotripsy, Br. J. Urol., 68, 337, 1991.
160. Coleman, A. J., Saunders, J. E., A review of the physical properties and biological effects of the high amplitude acoustic field used in extracorporeal lithotripsy, Ultrasonics, 31, 75, 1993.
161. Sinisterra, J., Application of ultrasound to biotechnology: An overview, Ultrasonics, 30, 180, 1992.
162. Fellinger, K., Schmid, J., Klinik und Therapies des Chromischen Gelenkrheumatismus, Maudrich, Vienna, Austria, 1954.
163. Griffin, J. E., Echternach, J. L., Price, R. E., Touchstone, J. C., Patients treated with ultrasonic driven hydrocortisone and with ultrasound alone, Phys. Ther., 47, 594, 1967.
164. Benson, H. A. E., McElnay, J. C., Harland, R., Hadgraft, R., Influence of ultrasound on the percutaneous absorption of nicotinate esters, Pharm. Res., 8, 204, 1991.
165. Levy, D., Kost, J., Meshulam, Y., Langer, R., Effect of ultrasound on transdermal drug delivery to rats and guinea pigs, J. Clin. Invest., 83, 2074, 1989.
166. Bracks, R., Nanavaty, M., Jung, D., Siegel, F., The effects of ultrasound on the in vitro penetration of ibuprofen through human epidermis, Pharm. Res., 6, 697, 1989.
167. Bommannan, D., Okuyama, H., Stauffer, P., Guy, R. H., Sonophoresis: I. The use of ultrasound to enhance transdermal drug delivery, Pharm. Res., 9, 559, 1991.
168. Bommannan, D., Menon, G. K., Okuyama, H., Elias, P. M., Guy, R. H., Sonophoresis: II. Examination of die mechanism(s) of ultrasound-enhancer transdermal drug delivery, Pharm. Res., 9, 1043, 1991.
169. Miyazaki, S., Mizuoka, H., Oda, M., Takada, M., External control of drug release and penetration: Enhancement of the transdermal absorption of indomethacin by ultrasound irradiation. J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 43, 115, 1991.
170. Mitragotri, S., Edwards, D. A., Blankschtein, D., Langer, R., A mechanistic study of ultrasonically enhanced transdermal drug delivery, J. Pharm. Sci., 84, 697, 1995.
171. Mortimer, A. J., Trollope, B. J., Villeneuve, E. J., Roy, A. Z., Ultrasound-enhanced diffusion through isolated frog skin, Ultrasonics, 26, 348, 1988.
172. Tachibana, K., Tachibana, S., Transdermal delivery of insulin by ultrasonic vibration, J. Pharm. Pharmocol., 43, 270, 1991.
173. McElnay, J. C., Matthews, M. P., Harland, R., McCafferty, D. F., The effect of ultrasound on the percutaneous absorption of lignocaine, Br. J. Clin. Pharm., 20, 421, 1985.
174. Pratzel, H., Dittrich, P., Kukovetz, W., Spontaneous and forced cutaneous absorption of indomethacin in pigs and humans, J. Rheumatol., 13, 1122, 1986.
175. Benson, H. A. E., McElnay, J. C., Harland, R., Use of ultrasound to enhance the percutaneous absorption of benzydamine, Phys. Ther., 69, 113, 1989.
176. Mitragotri, S., Ultrasound-Enhanced Transdermal Drug Delivery: Mechanisms and Application, Ph. D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1996.
177. Gaertner, W., Frequency dependence of ultrasonic cavitation, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 26, 977, 1954.
178. Tachibana, K., Tachibana, S., Use of ultrasound to enhance the local anesthetic effect of topically applied aqueous lidocaine, Anesthesiology, 78, 1091, 1993.
179. Tachibana, K., Transderaml delivery of insulin to alloxan-diabetic rabbits by ultrasound exposure, Pharm. Res., 9, 952, 1992.
180. Mitragotri, S., Blankschtein, D., Langer, R., Transdermal drug delivery using low-frequency sonophoresis, Pharm. Res., 13, 411, 1996.
181. Kost, J., Pliquett, U., Mitragotri, S., Yamamoto, A., Langer, R., Weaver, J., Synergistic effect of electric field and ultrasound on transdermal transport, Pharm. Res., 13, 633, 1996.
182. Haak, R., Gupta, S. K., Pulsatile drug delivery from electrotransport therapeutic systems, in Pulsatile Drug Delivery, Current Applications and Futute Trends, Gurny, R, Junginger, H. E., Peppas, N. A., Eds., Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 99, 1993.
183. In reference 182, this compound is referred to as protein X, but has been identified as cytochrome c in a personal communication from Ron Haak.
184. Green, P. G., Iontophoretic delivery of peptide drugs, J. Control. Rel., 41, 33, 1996.
185. Clemessy, M., Couarraze, G., Bevan, B., Puisieux, F., Mechanisms involved in iontophoretic transport of angiotensin, Pharm. Res., 12, 998, 1995.
186. Lau, D. T., Sharkey, J. W., Petryk, L., Mancuso, F. A., Yu, Z., Tse, F. L., Effect of current magnitude and drug concentration on iontophoretic delivery of octreotide acetate (Sandostatin) in the rabbit, Pharm. Res., 11, 1742, 1994.
187. Lelawongs, P., Liu, J.-C., Chien, Y. W., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of arginine-vasopressin (II): Evaluation of electrical and operational factors, Int. J. Pharm., 61, 179, 1990.
188. Iwajura, Y., Morimoto, K., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery of vasopressin and its analogues in rates, S. T. P. Pharma., 1, 387, 1991.
189. Morimoto, K., Iwakura, Y., Miyazaki, M., Nakatani, E., Effect of proteolytic enzyme inhibitors on enhancement of transdermal iontophoretic delivery ofvasopressin and an analogue in rats, Int. J. Pharm., 81, 119, 1992.
190. Banga, A. K., Chien, Y. W., Hydrogel-based iontotherapeutic delivery devices for transdermal delivery of peptide/protein drugs, Pharm. Res., 10, 697, 1993.
191. Martin, M., Curley, P., Devane, J., Kelly, J., In vitro transdermal delivery of desmopressin, in Prediction of Percutaneous Penetration, Scott, R. C., Guy, R. H., Hadgraft, J., Bodde, H. E., Eds., IBC Technical Services Ltd., London, 97, 1991.
192. Heit, M. C., Williams, P. L., Jayes, F. L., Chang, S. K., Riviere, J. E., Transdermal iontophoretic peptide delivery: In vitro and in vivo studies with luteinizing hormone releasing hormone, J. Pharm. Sci., 82, 240, 1993.
193. Delgado-Charro, M., Guy, R. H., Iontophoretic delivery of nafarelin across the skin, Int. J. Pharm., 117, 165, 1995.
194. Morimoto, K., Iwakura, Y., Nakatani, E., Miyazaki, M., Tojima, H., Effectsofproteolytic enzyme inhibitors as absorption enhancers on the transdermal iontophoretic delivery of calcitonin in rats, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 44, 216, 1992.
195. Hager, D. F., Mancuso, F. A., Nazareno, J. P., Sharkey, J. W., Siverly, J. R., Evaluation of a cultured skin equivalent as a model for iontophoretic transport, J. Control Rel., 30, 117, 1994.
196. Kumar, S., Char H., Patel, S., Piemontese, D., Iqbal, K., Malick, A. W., Meugroschel, E., Behl, C. R., Effect of iontophoresis on in vitro skin permeation of an analogue of growth hormone releasing factor in the hairless guinea pig model, J. Pharm. Sci., 81, 635, 1992.
197. Liu, J.-C., Sun, Y., Siddiqui, O., Chien, Y. W., Shi, W.-M., Li, J., Blood glucose control in diabetic rats by transdermal iontophoretic delivery of insulin, Int. J. Pharm., 44, 197, 1988.
198. Banga, A. K., Katakam, M., Mitra, R., Transdermal iontophoretic delivery and degradation of vasopressin across human cadaver skin, Int. J. Pharm., 116, 211, 1995.
199. Brady, A. B., Corish, J., Corrigan, O. I., Passive and electrically assisted transdermal delivery of desamino-8-D-arginino vasopressin in vitro from a gel matrix, in Prediction of Percutaneous Penetration, Scott, R. C., Guy, R. H., Hadgraft, J., Bodde, H. E., Eds., IBC Technical Services Ltd., London, 401, 1991.
200. Craane-van Hinsberg, W. H., Bax, L., Flinterman, N. H., Verhoef, J., Junginger, H. E., Bodde, H. E., Iontophoresis of a model peptide across human skin in vitro: Effects of iontophoresis protocol, pH, and ionic strength on peptide flux and skin impedance, Pharm. Res., 11, 1296, 1994.
201. Fu Lu, M., Lee, D., Carlson, R., Subba Rao, G., Hui, H. W., Adjei, L., Herrin, M., Sundberg, D., Hsu, L., The effects of formulation variables on iontophoretic transdermal delivery of leuprolide to humans, Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm., 19, 1557, 1993.
202. Knoblauch, P., Moll, F., In vitro pulsatile and continuous transdermal delivery of buserelin by iontophoresis, J. Control. Rel., 26, 203, 1993.
203. Zhang, L, Li, L., Hoffmann, G. A., Hoffman, R. M., Depth-targeted efficient gene delivery and expression in the skin by pulsed electric fields: An approach to gene therapy of skin aging and other diseases, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 220, 633, 1996.
204. Dev, S. B., Hormann, G. A., Electrochemotherapy - a novel method of cancer treatment, Cancer Treat. Rev., 20, 105, 1994.
205. Domenge, C., Orlowski, S., Luboinski, B., De Baere, T., Schwaab, G., Belehradek, J., Mir, L. M., Antitumor electrochemotherapy, Cancer, 77, 956, 1996.
206. Heller, R., Jaroszeski, M. J., Glass, L. F., Messina, J. L., Rapaport, D. P., DeConti, R. C., Fenske, N. A., Gilbert, R. A., Mir, L. M., Reintgen, D. S., Phase I/II trial for the treatment of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors using electrochemotherapy, Cancer, 77, 964, 1996.