The limits of tolerance: The Orthodox milieu as an element in the Finnish cultural landscape, 1917-1939

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 327-339

  Raivo, Petri J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OULU   (Finland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHURCH ROLE; CULTURAL LANDSCAPE; FINNISH ORTHODOX CHURCH; HISTORICAL STUDY; LANDSCAPE REPRESENTATION; RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

FINLAND, KARELIA;

EID: 0031435287     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhge.1996.0054     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
2. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
3. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
4. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
5. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re-reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
6. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
7. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
8. The phrase 'landscape as a text' refers to the cross-disciplinary idea of cultural texts and their readings and interpretations. Clifford Geertz in ethnography and Brian Stock in the sphere of historical studies, for example, have dealt with culture and its social relations as a text. See C. Geertz, The Intepretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York 1973); B. Stock, Texts, readers and enacted narratives, Visible Language 20 (1986) 294-9; B. Stock, Listening for the Text (Baltimore 1990). On the other hand the phrase 'iconography of the landscape' refers to the iconographic and iconological methods of art history, the interpretation of symbolic imagery in works of art and artefacts. See E. Panofsky, Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (New York 1972). Both of these metaphors are widely used in contemporary geography to refer to the same kind of critical and contextual landscape reading and interpretation. For the use, purposes and techniques of both kinds of landscape metaphor in geography, see J. S. Duncan and N. Duncan, Re- reading the landscape, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6 (1988) 117-26; S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, Introduction: iconography and landscape, in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels (Eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge 1989) 1-10; J. S. Duncan, The City as Text: The Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom (Cambridge 1990); J. Eyles and W. Peace, Signs and symbols in Hamilton: an iconology of steeltown, Geografiska Annaler 72B (1990) 73-88.
9. D. Cosgrove, Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (London 1984).
10. S. Daniels, Fields of Vision: Landscape Imagery and National Identity in England and the United States (Cambridge 1993).
11. H. Kirkinen, Ortodoksisen kirkon varhaisvaihe Suomessa, in F. Ambrosius and M. Haapio (Eds), Ortodoksinen kirkko Suomessa (Heinävesi 1982) 88-116. For a short introduction to the history of the Finnish Orthodox Church in English, see V. Purmonen (Ed), Orthodoxy in Finland: Past and Present (Kuopio 1981).
12. H. Kirkinen, Ortodoksisen kirkon varhaisvaihe Suomessa, in F. Ambrosius and M. Haapio (Eds), Ortodoksinen kirkko Suomessa (Heinävesi 1982) 88-116. For a short introduction to the history of the Finnish Orthodox Church in English, see V. Purmonen (Ed), Orthodoxy in Finland: Past and Present (Kuopio 1981).
13. H. Koukkunen, Tuiskua ja tyventä: Suomen ortodoksinen kirkko 1918-1978 (Heinävesi 1982) 22-3.
14. P. J. Raivo, Maiseman kulttuurinen transformaatio: ortodoksinen kirkko suamalaisessa kulttuurimaisemassa (Oulu 1996) 66.
15. Ibid., 74-88.
16. Ibid., 100-6.
17. T. Lehtonen, Pyhän Nikolaoksen kirkko - Hyrylän ortodoksisen sotilaskirkon ja seurakunnan vaiheita (Hyrylä 1991) 38-9. According to Lehtonen, there were about 85 Orthodox military churches in Finland during the Grand Duchy period, and there were 35 sites in the Helsinki region alone that could be mentioned as military churches of some kind.
18. Raivo, op. cit., 114.
19. Hämeen Sanomat (hereafter HäSa) 10 (1919).
20. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
21. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
22. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
23. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
24. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
25. Ibid., 9 (1919); 10 (1919); 12 (1919); 14 (1919); 15 (1919); 18 (1919).
26. Ibid., 34 (1919).
27. Ibid., 34 (1919).
28. Ibid., 10 (1919).
29. I.-M. Laitila, Ortodoksisuus Hämeenlinnassa (1993) 30.
30. Aamun Koitto (hereafter AK) 18, (1967).
31. Raivo, op. cit., 115.
32. P. Pulkkinen, Kirkkoarkkitehtuuri 1850-luvulta nykypäiviin, in Ambrosius and Haapio, op. cit., 490-512.
33. Lehtonen, op. cit. 34.
34. P. Raitasalo, Russian church in Helsinki, in M.-L. Lampinen (Ed.), The Russian Style in Helsinki 1809-1917 (Helsinki 1984) 109.
35. Archbishop John, Pyhän tilan käsite ortodoksisuudessa - pyhäkkö patristisessa ja kanonisessa perinteessä, in Pyhäkkötyöryhmä (Ed.), Ortodoksisten pyhäkköjen suunnittelu: konferenssiraportti (Joensuu 1992) 40.
36. H. Loima, Kirkon ja seurakunnan perinne, in Ambrosius and Haappio, op. cit., 319-22.
37. John, op. cit., 40-3.
38. AK, op. cit., (1939) 272.
39. AK, op. cit., 23 (1958) 264; 20 (1961) 283.
40. AK, op. cit., 23 (1958) 264; 20 (1961) 283.
41. Raivo, op. cit., 74-88.
42. Koukkunen, op. cit., 40-2.
43. The Finnish Civil Guard (suojeluskunta) was a nationwide and voluntary defence organization legally recognized as a part of the Finnish armed forces. It had been found in 1917 as a local white organization to counteract both the unruliness of the revolutionary Russian military forces and paramilitary red guards of Finnish socialists, and had played a decisive role in the Finnish civil war the following year. After that it has steadily increased in importance as a anti-socialist, nationalistic and thus highly political defence organization. By 1938, it has over 100000 active members who participated regularly in military exercises organized by its local detachments. Alongside the Civil Guard there was also a women's organization, Lotta-Svärd. The constant training in military skills provided for the members of the Civil Guard did much to improve the general level of Finnish defence, as became obvious in the Winter War and later in Continuation War, when the backbone of the Finnish reserves and their officers consisted of well-trained Civil Guards. It was probably as a consequence of this that the disbanding of the Civil Guard was one of the conditions laid down in the interim peace treaty between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1944. (See P. Pirhonen, Suojeluskunnat ja Lotta Svärd (Hämeenlinna 1988).
44. AK, op. cit., 41 (1932) 332.
45. H. Komonen, Karjala vapaussodassa 2 (Helsinki 1934) 14.
46. Raivo, op cit., 126-7.
47. Karjala: Länsi-Karjala lukuunottamatta Viipurin ja Haminan välistä seutua (Helsinki 1925) 5-6 ; I. Härkönen, Suomen Karjala: lyhyt esitys Suomen Karjalan maantieteestä, historiallisista vaiheista ja kansanluonteesta (Helsinki 1926) 45.
48. Karjala: Länsi-Karjala lukuunottamatta Viipurin ja Haminan välistä seutua (Helsinki 1925) 5-6 ; I. Härkönen, Suomen Karjala: lyhyt esitys Suomen Karjalan maantieteestä, historiallisista vaiheista ja kansanluonteesta (Helsinki 1926) 45.
49. I. Härkönen, Runojen ja metsäin Karjala: kylästä kylään käypä esitys nykyhetken Raja-Karjalasta (Helsinki 1914) 32; V. Suomenmaa, Viipurin lääni, in J. E. Rosberg et al. (Eds), Suomenmaa: maantieteellis-taloudellinen ja historiallinen tietokirja (Helsinki 1923) 23; Rajaseutujen matkailuopus (Helsinki 1927) 25-7; E. Vartiainen, Matkailuopas: Sortavala - Pohjois-Laatokan saaristo - Raja-Karjala - Valamo (Sortavala 1932) 18; O. Enckell, Rajan vartio: jalkamatkoja Raja-Karjalassa (Helsinki 1939) 187.
50. I. Härkönen, Runojen ja metsäin Karjala: kylästä kylään käypä esitys nykyhetken Raja- Karjalasta (Helsinki 1914) 32; V. Suomenmaa, Viipurin lääni, in J. E. Rosberg et al. (Eds), Suomenmaa: maantieteellis-taloudellinen ja historiallinen tietokirja (Helsinki 1923) 23; Rajaseutujen matkailuopus (Helsinki 1927) 25-7; E. Vartiainen, Matkailuopas: Sortavala - Pohjois-Laatokan saaristo - Raja-Karjala - Valamo (Sortavala 1932) 18; O. Enckell, Rajan vartio: jalkamatkoja Raja-Karjalassa (Helsinki 1939) 187.
51. I. Härkönen, Runojen ja metsäin Karjala: kylästä kylään käypä esitys nykyhetken Raja- Karjalasta (Helsinki 1914) 32; V. Suomenmaa, Viipurin lääni, in J. E. Rosberg et al. (Eds), Suomenmaa: maantieteellis-taloudellinen ja historiallinen tietokirja (Helsinki 1923) 23; Rajaseutujen matkailuopus (Helsinki 1927) 25-7; E. Vartiainen, Matkailuopas: Sortavala - Pohjois-Laatokan saaristo - Raja-Karjala - Valamo (Sortavala 1932) 18; O. Enckell, Rajan vartio: jalkamatkoja Raja-Karjalassa (Helsinki 1939) 187.
52. I. Härkönen, Runojen ja metsäin Karjala: kylästä kylään käypä esitys nykyhetken Raja- Karjalasta (Helsinki 1914) 32; V. Suomenmaa, Viipurin lääni, in J. E. Rosberg et al. (Eds), Suomenmaa: maantieteellis-taloudellinen ja historiallinen tietokirja (Helsinki 1923) 23; Rajaseutujen matkailuopus (Helsinki 1927) 25-7; E. Vartiainen, Matkailuopas: Sortavala -Pohjois-Laatokan saaristo - Raja-Karjala - Valamo (Sortavala 1932) 18; O. Enckell, Rajan vartio: jalkamatkoja Raja-Karjalassa (Helsinki 1939) 187.
53. I. Härkönen, Runojen ja metsäin Karjala: kylästä kylään käypä esitys nykyhetken Raja- Karjalasta (Helsinki 1914) 32; V. Suomenmaa, Viipurin lääni, in J. E. Rosberg et al. (Eds), Suomenmaa: maantieteellis-taloudellinen ja historiallinen tietokirja (Helsinki 1923) 23; Rajaseutujen matkailuopus (Helsinki 1927) 25-7; E. Vartiainen, Matkailuopas: Sortavala - Pohjois-Laatokan saaristo - Raja-Karjala - Valamo (Sortavala 1932) 18; O. Enckell, Rajan vartio: jalkamatkoja Raja-Karjalassa (Helsinki 1939) 187.
54. On peripheral areas and the process of nationalisation in Finland, see A. Paasi, Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness: The Changing Geographies of the Finnish-Russian Border (Chichester 1996).
55. AK, op. cit., 6 (1938) 6.
56. The attempt to change the visible symbols of the Orthodox culture and control its manifestation in the landscape took on concrete forms in many cases. One example of this was the reconditioning of the old chapel of Uomaa in the border area of Karelia, which had been built in the 1920s. The Ministry of Forestry agreed to sell logs to the local parish cheaply if it would comply with three general conditions: (1) that the Ministry of Education should ratify the plans for the chapel; (2) that the chapel should be given a Finnish form of architecture without any alien features in its exterior; and (3) that all services should be held in Finnish. See AK op. cit., 15-6 (1929) 256.
57. Koukkunen, op. cit., 40-41.
58. P. J. Raivo, Hiekan pyhä Konevitsan luostari: Konevitsan luostarin vaiheet ja sen aiheuttamat paikkaidentiteetin muutokset Keiteleen Hiekassa 1940-1956 (Sonkajärvi 1990) 9-11.
59. Raivo, Maiseman kulttuurinen transformaatio, 133-9.
60. AK, op. cit., 14 (1925) 125-6.
61. AK, op. cit., 8 (1920) 63; AK 43 (1931) 344-7.
62. AK, op. cit., 8 (1920) 63; AK 43 (1931) 344-7.
63. E. Hjelt-Cajanus, Valamo ja matkailijat, Suomen matkailijayhdistyksen vuosikirja (1925) 153-65.
64. This tolerant attitude was, of course, a part of the policy of visible political correctness adopted by the Finnish state and government. See Koukkunen, op cit., 42 for behind-the-scenes there was much distrust and lack of confidence. For example, there were attempts by the Finnish police and Secret Service to investigate 'suspicious' connections between the monks of Valamo and the Soviet Union. See H. Kilpeläinen, Laatokan Valamon maallikot ja pyhissäkävijät - luostarin ja yhteiskunnan vuorovaikutussuhde (unpublished Licentiate thesis, University of Helsinki 1994, 267-70). Some authorities even suggested moving Orthodox people from the border area to the interior of Finland and replacing them with a more reliable, nationalistic Finns. See T. Hämynen, Lükkeellä leivän tähden: Raja-Karjalan väestö ja sen toimeentulo (Helsinki 1993) 208.
65. This tolerant attitude was, of course, a part of the policy of visible political correctness adopted by the Finnish state and government. See Koukkunen, op cit., 42 for behind-the- scenes there was much distrust and lack of confidence. For example, there were attempts by the Finnish police and Secret Service to investigate 'suspicious' connections between the monks of Valamo and the Soviet Union. See H. Kilpeläinen, Laatokan Valamon maallikot ja pyhissäkävijät - luostarin ja yhteiskunnan vuorovaikutussuhde (unpublished Licentiate thesis, University of Helsinki 1994, 267-70). Some authorities even suggested moving Orthodox people from the border area to the interior of Finland and replacing them with a more reliable, nationalistic Finns. See T. Hämynen, Lükkeellä leivän tähden: Raja-Karjalan väestö ja sen toimeentulo (Helsinki 1993) 208.
66. Koukkunen, op. cit.