Ecuador: Adjustment policy impacts on truncated development and democratisation

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 18, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 913-934

  Larrea, Carlos ^a   North, Liisa L ^b  

^a Lat Amern Fac of Social Sciences   (Ecuador)

^b YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADJUSTMENT IMPACT; CLASS RELATIONS; DEMOCRATISATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; POWER RELATIONS;

ECUADOR;

EID: 0031433450     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599714669     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. The figures summarised below were first calculated up to 1992-93 by Larrea and subsequently partly updated from various official sources. Carlos Larrea, 'Structural adjustment, income distribution and employment in Ecuador', in Albert Berry (ed), Poverty, Economic Reforms, and Income Distribution in Latin America, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997.
2. Flooding caused by heavy rains in 1982-83 dramatically reduced agricultural production and exports and destroyed transportation and communications infrastructure; a severe earthquake in March 1987 destroyed the oil pipeline connecting production fields with port facilities and left the country without the capacity to export petroleum for several months.
3. Catherine M. Conaghan, 'Dreams of orthodoxy, tales of heterodoxy: Leon Febres Cordero and economic policymaking in Ecuador, 1964-88', paper presented to the XV International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 21-23 September, 1989; Francisco Thoumi & Merilee Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste: la actual experiencia ecuatoriana, Quíto: FLACSO, 1992; Alain de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment in Ecuador and Venezuela, Paris: OECD Development Centre, 1993; Jurgen Schuldt, Elecciones y político económica en el Ecuador 1983-1994, Quito: ILDIS, 1994.
4. Catherine M. Conaghan, 'Dreams of orthodoxy, tales of heterodoxy: Leon Febres Cordero and economic policymaking in Ecuador, 1964-88', paper presented to the XV International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 21-23 September, 1989; Francisco Thoumi & Merilee Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste: la actual experiencia ecuatoriana, Quíto: FLACSO, 1992; Alain de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment in Ecuador and Venezuela, Paris: OECD Development Centre, 1993; Jurgen Schuldt, Elecciones y político económica en el Ecuador 1983-1994, Quito: ILDIS, 1994.
5. Catherine M. Conaghan, 'Dreams of orthodoxy, tales of heterodoxy: Leon Febres Cordero and economic policymaking in Ecuador, 1964-88', paper presented to the XV International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 21-23 September, 1989; Francisco Thoumi & Merilee Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste: la actual experiencia ecuatoriana, Quíto: FLACSO, 1992; Alain de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment in Ecuador and Venezuela, Paris: OECD Development Centre, 1993; Jurgen Schuldt, Elecciones y político económica en el Ecuador 1983-1994, Quito: ILDIS, 1994.
6. Catherine M. Conaghan, 'Dreams of orthodoxy, tales of heterodoxy: Leon Febres Cordero and economic policymaking in Ecuador, 1964-88', paper presented to the XV International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 21-23 September, 1989; Francisco Thoumi & Merilee Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste: la actual experiencia ecuatoriana, Quíto: FLACSO, 1992; Alain de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment in Ecuador and Venezuela, Paris: OECD Development Centre, 1993; Jurgen Schuldt, Elecciones y político económica en el Ecuador 1983-1994, Quito: ILDIS, 1994.
7. Barrington Moore, Jr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Modern World, Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1996; and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens & John D Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
8. Barrington Moore, Jr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Modern World, Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1996; and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens & John D Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
9. Agustín Cueva, El desarrollo del capitalismo en américa latino, Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1977.
10. Miguel Murmis, 'El agro serrano y la vía Prussiana de desarrollo capitaliste', in Oswaldo Barsky et al. (eds), Ecuador: Cambios en el Agro Serrano, Quito: FLACSO/CEPLAES, 1980.
11. Rafael Quintero & Erika Silva, 'Región y representación política en el Ecuador contemporáneo', in Rafael Quintero (ed), La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, Quito: Corporación Editera Nacional, 1991.
12. André A Hofman & Rudolf M Buitelaar, 'Ventajas comparativas extraordinarias y crecimiento a largo plazo: el caso Ecuador', Revista de la CEPAL, 54, 1994; and de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment, pp 149-166.
13. André A Hofman & Rudolf M Buitelaar, 'Ventajas comparativas extraordinarias y crecimiento a largo plazo: el caso Ecuador', Revista de la CEPAL, 54, 1994; and de Janvry et al, The Political Feasibility of Structural Adjustment, pp 149-166.
14. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
15. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
16. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
17. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
18. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
19. For example, Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; Louis Lefeber, On the paradigm of economic development', World Development, 2(1) 1974; Lefeber, 'Spatial population distribution: urban and rural development', in Lefeber & Liisa Worth (eds), Democracy and Development in Latin America, Toronto: CRLAC-LARU, 1980; Keith Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, London: Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, 1989; Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991; and Giovanni Arrighi, 'Peripheralization of Southern Africa, I: changes in production processes', Review, III(2), 1979, pp 161-191.
20. Manuel Chiriboga, (1978) 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana: la plantación cacaotera', Estudios Rurales Latinoamericanos, 1(1), 1978; and Andrés Guerrero, (1980) Los oligarcas del cacao, Quito: El Conejo, 1980.
21. Manuel Chiriboga, (1978) 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana: la plantación cacaotera', Estudios Rurales Latinoamericanos, 1(1), 1978; and Andrés Guerrero, (1980) Los oligarcas del cacao, Quito: El Conejo, 1980.
22. Guerrero, Los oligarcas del cacas, p 63. Guerrero estimates total coastal assets at 42 million sucres in 1909-11, in contrast to five million sucres in Quito (p 62). Chiriboga refers to 15 interrelated families 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana', p 121. All translations from the Spanish have been made by the authors.
23. Guerrero, Los oligarcas del cacas, p 63. Guerrero estimates total coastal assets at 42 million sucres in 1909-11, in contrast to five million sucres in Quito (p 62). Chiriboga refers to 15 interrelated families 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana', p 121. All translations from the Spanish have been made by the authors.
24. Guerrero, Las oligarcas del cacas, p 82.
25. Luis Fierro, Los Grupos Financieros en el Ecuador, Quito: CEDEP, 1991, p 45.
26. Concertaje was a form of debt peonage (including prison for debt) which was formally abolished in 1918. The huasipungo was the plot granted for subsistence cultivation to the Indian peasant in exchange for non-paid labour for the estate owner. It was finally abolished in 1964 in Ecuador's first agrarian reform law.
27. Sabine Fischer, Estado, Closes e Industriel: La emergencia del capitalisme ecuatoriano y los intereses azucareros, Quito: Editorial El Conejo, 1983, pp 239-241.
28. Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America.
29. Chiriboga, 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana', p 129.
30. Germánico Salgado, 'El estado ecuatoriano: crisis económica y estado desarrollista', in Cui Hongru et al, (eds), Los Nuevos Límites del Estado, Quito: CORDES, 1989, pp 254-260.
31. The beginnings of the modernisation of the state can be dated back to the 'Revolución Juliana' of 1925 and some investment in infrastructure began with the recovery of export production during World War II (see, for example, Fischer, Estado, Closes e Industria, pp 250-251.
32. Albert Hirshman, 'Enfoque generalizado del desarrollo por medio de enlaces, con referencia especial a los productos básicos', El Trimestre Económico, 45(173), 1977.
33. Carlos Larrea, chapters 1-3 and 6-7, in Larrea (ed), El Banano en el Ecuador: Transnacionales, Modernizatión y Subdesarrollo, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO, 1987.
34. It was outranked by the two provinces where the country's principal cities are located and by the Galápagos Islands, whose population is very small and benefits from tourist revenue.
35. Larrea, El Banano en el Ecuador, pp 242, 243.
36. It must be noted that, even in El Oro, extensive cattle estates held most of the land.
37. Larrea, El Banana en el Ecuador, pp 253-254, and Paola Sylva Charvet, 'Los productores del banano, in Carlos Larrea (ed) El Banano en el Ecuador: Transnacionales, Modernizatión y Subdesarrollo, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO, 1987.
38. Larrea, El Banana en el Ecuador, pp 253-254, and Paola Sylva Charvet, 'Los productores del banano, in Carlos Larrea (ed) El Banano en el Ecuador: Transnacionales, Modernizatión y Subdesarrollo, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO, 1987.
39. Larrea, El Banana en el Ecuador, pp 67-108.
40. Ibid, p 270. By then, both land ownership and marketing were less concentrated in cacao production, which eventually recovered, and in coffee, which was added to the coastal export mix in the 1930s. Coffee is a 'peasant crop' and about half of all cacao now originates from small and medium sized units. However, since 1989, the two crops taken together have made up less than 10% of total exports. The export of processed coffee and cacao products, however, is highly concentrated in a few coastal 'economic groups': five firms account for about 90% of the first and two-thirds of the second. Fierro, Los Grupos Financieros en el Ecuador, pp 107-108.
41. Ibid, p 270. By then, both land ownership and marketing were less concentrated in cacao production, which eventually recovered, and in coffee, which was added to the coastal export mix in the 1930s. Coffee is a 'peasant crop' and about half of all cacao now originates from small and medium sized units. However, since 1989, the two crops taken together have made up less than 10% of total exports. The export of processed coffee and cacao products, however, is highly concentrated in a few coastal 'economic groups': five firms account for about 90% of the first and two-thirds of the second. Fierro, Los Grupos Financieros en el Ecuador, pp 107-108.
42. Anthony Winson, Coffee and Democracy in Modern Costa Rica, Toronto: Between The Lines, 1989, p 114.
43. Ibid, p 107. See also Forrest D Colburn, 'Exceptions to Urban Bias in Latin America: Cuba and Costa Rica', Journal of Development Studies, 29(4), 1993, pp 60-78.
44. Ibid, p 107. See also Forrest D Colburn, 'Exceptions to Urban Bias in Latin America: Cuba and Costa Rica', Journal of Development Studies, 29(4), 1993, pp 60-78.
45. Catherine M Conaghan, Restructuring Domination: Industrialists and the State in Ecuador, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988, pp 41-61.
46. David P Hansen, 'Political decision making in Ecuador: the influence of business groups, doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1971.
47. Ibid, pp 55-85.
48. Navarro, 1976, pp 80-97.
49. Hansen, 'Political decision making in Ecuador'; Navarro; and Conaghan, Restructuring Domination. It should be noted that some domestic market orientated manufacturing activity (and even some exports to Colombia) grew in the northern highlands during the quarter century between the decline of the cacao economy and the banana boom. This happened largely as a consequence of the scarcity of foreign exchange and the 'natural' protection created by the region's isolation. Demand was also generated by the highland location of the country's capital, Quito, which housed most of the state bureaucracy and its employed middle class, the residences of the region's traditional elite, and the principal cultural institutions. The demand effects should not be exaggerated, however, since Quito, after all, was located in an essentially agricultural society dominated by large estates and servile production relations. As late as the 1950s, huasipungueros could be found 'employed' in the textile factories that were an offshoot of sheep raising on the highland haciendas. Juan Maiguashca, 'Las clases subalternas en los años treinta', Revista Ecuatoriana de Historia Económica, 111(6), 1989, p 193.
50. Hansen, 'Political decision making in Ecuador'; Navarro; and Conaghan, Restructuring Domination. It should be noted that some domestic market orientated manufacturing activity (and even some exports to Colombia) grew in the northern highlands during the quarter century between the decline of the cacao economy and the banana boom. This happened largely as a consequence of the scarcity of foreign exchange and the 'natural' protection created by the region's isolation. Demand was also generated by the highland location of the country's capital, Quito, which housed most of the state bureaucracy and its employed middle class, the residences of the region's traditional elite, and the principal cultural institutions. The demand effects should not be exaggerated, however, since Quito, after all, was located in an essentially agricultural society dominated by large estates and servile production relations. As late as the 1950s, huasipungueros could be found 'employed' in the textile factories that were an offshoot of sheep raising on the highland haciendas. Juan Maiguashca, 'Las clases subalternas en los años treinta', Revista Ecuatoriana de Historia Económica, 111(6), 1989, p 193.
51. Hansen, 'Political decision making in Ecuador'; Navarro; and Conaghan, Restructuring Domination. It should be noted that some domestic market orientated manufacturing activity (and even some exports to Colombia) grew in the northern highlands during the quarter century between the decline of the cacao economy and the banana boom. This happened largely as a consequence of the scarcity of foreign exchange and the 'natural' protection created by the region's isolation. Demand was also generated by the highland location of the country's capital, Quito, which housed most of the state bureaucracy and its employed middle class, the residences of the region's traditional elite, and the principal cultural institutions. The demand effects should not be exaggerated, however, since Quito, after all, was located in an essentially agricultural society dominated by large estates and servile production relations. As late as the 1950s, huasipungueros could be found 'employed' in the textile factories that were an offshoot of sheep raising on the highland haciendas. Juan Maiguashca, 'Las clases subalternas en los años treinta', Revista Ecuatoriana de Historia Económica, 111(6), 1989, p 193.
52. Fierro, Los Grupos Financieros en el Ecuador.
53. Conaghan, Restructuring Domination, p 50.
54. Ibid, pp 50-51.
55. Hansen, 'Political decision making in Ecuador', pp 303-304.
56. Carlos Larrea, The mirage of development: oil, employment, and poverty in Ecuador (1970-1990), doctoral dissertation, York University, 1992; and Rob Vos, Industrializatión, empleo y necesidades básicas en el Ecuador, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO, 1987, p 30.
57. Carlos Larrea, The mirage of development: oil, employment, and poverty in Ecuador (1970-1990), doctoral dissertation, York University, 1992; and Rob Vos, Industrializatión, empleo y necesidades básicas en el Ecuador, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO, 1987, p 30.
58. Vos, Industrializatión, p 95.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid, p 58.
61. Ibid, p 85.
62. Hofman & Buitelar, 'Ventajas comparativas extraordinarias y crecimients a largo plaza', p 164.
63. Vos, Industrialization, p 31.
64. Larrea, The mirage of development', p 164.
65. Vos, Industrialization, p 96. See also Vos, 'Producción, empleo y tecnología', in Manuel Chiriboga (ed), El Problema Agrario en el Ecuador, Quito: ILDIS, 1988; and Keith Griffin, 'Sistemas de control laboral y pobreza rural en Ecuador', in Griffin, Concentratión de Tierras y Pobreza Rural, Mexico: Fondo del Cultura Económica, 1983.
66. Vos, Industrialization, p 96. See also Vos, 'Producción, empleo y tecnología', in Manuel Chiriboga (ed), El Problema Agrario en el Ecuador, Quito: ILDIS, 1988; and Keith Griffin, 'Sistemas de control laboral y pobreza rural en Ecuador', in Griffin, Concentratión de Tierras y Pobreza Rural, Mexico: Fondo del Cultura Económica, 1983.
67. Vos, Industrialization, p 96. See also Vos, 'Producción, empleo y tecnología', in Manuel Chiriboga (ed), El Problema Agrario en el Ecuador, Quito: ILDIS, 1988; and Keith Griffin, 'Sistemas de control laboral y pobreza rural en Ecuador', in Griffin, Concentratión de Tierras y Pobreza Rural, Mexico: Fondo del Cultura Económica, 1983.
68. Larrea, 'The mirage of development', p 157.
69. Ibid, p 112.
70. Liisa L North, 'Implementación de la política económica y la estructura del poder político en el Ecuador', in Louis Lefeber (ed) Economía Político del Ecuador: Campo, Région, Natión, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO and CERLAC, 1985, pp 433-443.
71. Of course, the aggressive loan policies of international banks in the late 1970s and general optimism about increasing returns from petroleum exports also accounted for the turn toward 'aggressive borrowing'. Alberto Acosta, La Deuda Eterna: una historia de la deuda externa ecuatoriana, Quito: Libresa, 1994, pp 215-219.
72. Ibid, pp 216-218.
73. Conaghan, Restructuring Domination, p 116.
74. Larrea, 'The mirage of development', pp 249-250.
75. Ibid, p 214.
76. World Bank, Ecuador: Development Problems and Prospects, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1979, p 21.
77. Chiriboga, 'Conformación histórica del régimen agroexportador de la costa ecuatoriana', p 132.
78. Juan Maiguashca & Liisa North, Orígenes y significado del Velasquismo: lucha de clases y participación política en el Ecuador, 1920-1972', in Rafael Quintero (ed), La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO and CERLAC, 1991, p 104; Carlos de la Torre Espinosa, La Seductión Velasquista, Quito: Ediciones Libri Mundi y FLACSO, 1993, pp 67-73.
79. Juan Maiguashca & Liisa North, Orígenes y significado del Velasquismo: lucha de clases y participación política en el Ecuador, 1920-1972', in Rafael Quintero (ed), La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional with FLACSO and CERLAC, 1991, p 104; Carlos de la Torre Espinosa, La Seductión Velasquista, Quito: Ediciones Libri Mundi y FLACSO, 1993, pp 67-73.
80. Rafael Quintero, El mito del populismo en el Ecuador: Analisis de los fundamentos del Estado ecuatoriano moderno, 1895-1934, Quito: FLACSO, 1980, p 282.
81. Enrique Ayala Mora, Los Partidos Políticos en el Ecuador, síntesis histórica, Quito: Ediciones La Tierra, 1989, pp 24-25.
82. Oswaldo Hurtado & Joachim Herudek, La Organizatión Popular en Ecuador, Quito: INEDES, 1974, p 86.
83. The following description of development in the southern highlands is summarised from Maiguashca & North, Orígenes y significado del Velasquismo', pp 113-115.
84. Juan M Carrón, 'La dinámica de población en la sierra ecuatoriana: los desplazamientos de población y su evolución reciente', in Barsky et al, (eds), Ecuador: Cambios en el Agro Serrano, p 514.
85. Ibid, pp 513-514.
86. Leslie Ann Brownrigg, 'The Nobles of Cuenca: the agrarian elite of southern Ecuador', doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York, 1972, p 119. See also Navarro, la concentration de capital en el Ecuador.
87. Leslie Ann Brownrigg, 'The Nobles of Cuenca: the agrarian elite of southern Ecuador', doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York, 1972, p 119. See also Navarro, la concentration de capital en el Ecuador.
88. Maiguashca & North, Orígenens y significado del Valasquismo', p 125.
89. Amparo Menéndez-Carrión, La Conquista del voto: de Velasco a Roldós, Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional, 1986, p 138.
90. Menéndez-Carrión, La conquista del voto.
91. Quintero & Silva, 'Región y representación política en el Ecuador contemporáneo', Simón Pachano, la sociedad imperceptable', in Rosemary Thorp et al, Las crisis en el Ecuador: Los treinta y orchenta. Quito: Corporacion Editora Nacional with Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos de la Universidad de Oxford and Instituto de Estudios Avanzados 1991.
92. Menéndez-Carión, La conquista del noto, p 171.
93. Ibid, p 144.
94. Fernando Calderón et al, Guayaquil, realadades y desafios, Quito: CORDES, 1989; and César Coronel, 'Centralización y decentralización: el caso de Guayaquil', in Coronel et al (eds) Decentralizatión y Gobiernos Municipales, Quito: CORDES, 1993.
95. Fernando Calderón et al, Guayaquil, realadades y desafios, Quito: CORDES, 1989; and César Coronel, 'Centralización y decentralización: el caso de Guayaquil', in Coronel et al (eds) Decentralizatión y Gobiernos Municipales, Quito: CORDES, 1993.
96. Nick D Mills, 'Sector privado y estado nacional en el Ecuador', in Quintero (ed) La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, 220-221; and Bertha García, 'Regionalismo y modernas tendencias políticas', in Quintero (ed), La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, pp 200-206.
97. Nick D Mills, 'Sector privado y estado nacional en el Ecuador', in Quintero (ed) La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, 220-221; and Bertha García, 'Regionalismo y modernas tendencias políticas', in Quintero (ed), La Cuestión Regional y el Poder, pp 200-206.
98. Conaghan, Restructuring Domination, p 99.
99. Vos, Industrializatión, None of this portends well for the theoretically posited efficiency gains from proposed privatisations that would, most likely, involve the country's principal economic groups. Moreover, the evidence argues that the efficiency advantages of large enterprises in general are dubious although 'the case for the superiority of private enterprise [is] generally strong with reference to profit oriented small scale activities'. Manfred Bienefeld, 'Structural adjustment: debt collection device or development policy?', Advanced Development Management Program (ADMP) Series No 5, Tokyo: Institute of Comparative Culture, Sophia University, 1993, p 22. Privatisation through asset redistribution - as proposed by neoliberal thinker Pablo Lucio Paredes in an interview (Quito, 4 August 1995) - has not featured on the agenda of public debate.
100. Vos, Industrializatión, None of this portends well for the theoretically posited efficiency gains from proposed privatisations that would, most likely, involve the country's principal economic groups. Moreover, the evidence argues that the efficiency advantages of large enterprises in general are dubious although 'the case for the superiority of private enterprise [is] generally strong with reference to profit oriented small scale activities'. Manfred Bienefeld, 'Structural adjustment: debt collection device or development policy?', Advanced Development Management Program (ADMP) Series No 5, Tokyo: Institute of Comparative Culture, Sophia University, 1993, p 22. Privatisation through asset redistribution - as proposed by neoliberal thinker Pablo Lucio Paredes in an interview (Quito, 4 August 1995) - has not featured on the agenda of public debate.
101. David Mitrany, Marx Against the Peasant: A Study in Social Dogmatism, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1951.
102. Larrea, 'Structural adjustment, income distribution and employment in Ecuador'.
103. Interview with Cornelio Maerchán, Quito, 24 July 1995.
104. León Roldós Aguilera, 'Endeudamiento externo y crisis', in Rosemary Thorp et al (eds), Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los treinta y ochenta, pp 175-178; Thoumi & Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste, pp 43, 97, note 54; and Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, pp 243-246. Among the curious beneficiaries of the 'sucretisation' was the Quito Tennis and Golf Club which had indebted itself to the tune of some $6.5 million. From Central Bank figures cited by Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, p 379, Appendix Table 5.
105. León Roldós Aguilera, 'Endeudamiento externo y crisis', in Rosemary Thorp et al (eds), Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los treinta y ochenta, pp 175-178; Thoumi & Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste, pp 43, 97, note 54; and Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, pp 243-246. Among the curious beneficiaries of the 'sucretisation' was the Quito Tennis and Golf Club which had indebted itself to the tune of some $6.5 million. From Central Bank figures cited by Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, p 379, Appendix Table 5.
106. León Roldós Aguilera, 'Endeudamiento externo y crisis', in Rosemary Thorp et al (eds), Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los treinta y ochenta, pp 175-178; Thoumi & Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste, pp 43, 97, note 54; and Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, pp 243-246. Among the curious beneficiaries of the 'sucretisation' was the Quito Tennis and Golf Club which had indebted itself to the tune of some $6.5 million. From Central Bank figures cited by Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, p 379, Appendix Table 5.
107. León Roldós Aguilera, 'Endeudamiento externo y crisis', in Rosemary Thorp et al (eds), Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los treinta y ochenta, pp 175-178; Thoumi & Grindle, La Política de la Economía del Ajuste, pp 43, 97, note 54; and Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, pp 243-246. Among the curious beneficiaries of the 'sucretisation' was the Quito Tennis and Golf Club which had indebted itself to the tune of some $6.5 million. From Central Bank figures cited by Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, p 379, Appendix Table 5.
108. Acosta, La Deuda Eterna, pp 243-245.
109. Luis I Jácome H, 'La experiencia de estabilización en el Ecuador', Quito: CORDES, Apunte Técnico 28, 1994, pp 24-25 and note 16.
110. Luciano Martínez Valle, Los campesinos-artesanos de la sierra central: el caso de Tungurahua, Quito: CAAP, 1994, p 169.
111. Cynthia Hewitt de Alcãntara, 'Introduction: markets in principle and practice', in Hewitt de Alcántara (ed), Real Markets: Social and Political Issues of Food Policy Reform, London: Frank Cass, 1993, p 3.
112. Interview with Paredes, cited earlier.
113. Interview with Boris Cornejo of the Fundacíon Esquel, Quito, 27 July 1995. He is convinced that 'the ideas concerning markets underlying adjustment programmes are totally inapplicable in the context of very heterogenous markets like those of Ecuador'.
114. Interview, Quito, 16 April 1997.
115. While the dismissals have been massive, it is likely that a significant number of 'political loyalists' of the parties in power have been hired.
116. The expression was used by Luis Verdesoto who, at the time he was interviewed in Quito (24 July 1995), directed a forum on public policy choices for the Fundacion Esquel. The forum attempted to make politics into the 'business of the many'.
117. Leon Zamosc, 'Agrarian protest and the Indian movement in the Ecuadorian highlands', Latin American Research Review, 29(3), 1994; and Zamosc Estadística de las areas de predominio étnico de la sierra ecuatoriana: Población rural, indicadores cantonales y organizaciones de base, Quito: Ediciones AbyaYala, 1995.
118. Leon Zamosc, 'Agrarian protest and the Indian movement in the Ecuadorian highlands', Latin American Research Review, 29(3), 1994; and Zamosc Estadística de las areas de predominio étnico de la sierra ecuatoriana: Población rural, indicadores cantonales y organizaciones de base, Quito: Ediciones AbyaYala, 1995.
119. Anthony Beggington et al, Actores de una Década Ganada: Tribus Communicades y Campesinos en la Modernidad, Quito: COMMUNIDEC 1992.
120. Luciano Martínez Valle, 'Organizaciones de segundo grado, capital social y desarrollo sostenible', Iconos, 2, 1997.
121. The Quichua name of the organisation translates as 'let's give each other a hand'; the coupled Spanish name means 'trading among brothers'.
122. Interview with, and documentation provided by, Homero Viteri, Administrative Deputy-Director of 'Maquita Cusunchic', Quito, 31 July 1995.
123. Interview with Regula Chavez, Swiss contact, Quito, 15 April 1997.
124. Martínez Valle analyses a 'successful' system of small-scale production, which developed with little or no state support, in Tungurahua which, nevertheless, is threatened by current trade liberalisation policies. Among the fundamental reasons for its development, he identifies the relatively weak landlord class of the region and the early disappearance of servile labour relations. Martinez Valle, Los campesinos-artesanos de la sierra central, p 162.
125. Winson, Coffee and Democracy in Modem Costa Rica; and Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, pp 171-189. Interestingly, Costa Rica may be the only Latin American country where adjustment policies did not produce greater distributional inequity. The fact that assets were relatively equitably distributed in the coffee export sector is among the explanations offered to account for this outcome. Albert Berry, 'The income distribution threat in Latin America', Latin American Research Review, 32(2), 1997.
126. Winson, Coffee and Democracy in Modem Costa Rica; and Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, pp 171-189. Interestingly, Costa Rica may be the only Latin American country where adjustment policies did not produce greater distributional inequity. The fact that assets were relatively equitably distributed in the coffee export sector is among the explanations offered to account for this outcome. Albert Berry, 'The income distribution threat in Latin America', Latin American Research Review, 32(2), 1997.
127. Winson, Coffee and Democracy in Modem Costa Rica; and Griffin, Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, pp 171-189. Interestingly, Costa Rica may be the only Latin American country where adjustment policies did not produce greater distributional inequity. The fact that assets were relatively equitably distributed in the coffee export sector is among the explanations offered to account for this outcome. Albert Berry, 'The income distribution threat in Latin America', Latin American Research Review, 32(2), 1997.
128. Michel Rowland, 'Corrupción: del olvido al escándalo', Ikonos, 2, 1997.
129. Vos, Industrialización, pp 70, 44.
130. Mauricio León, 'De la delincuencia: una respuesta social a la injusticia?', Ekos, 2(17), 1995, p 77.
131. Invonne Ortuño, 'De qué nos morimos más?', Gestión, 12, 1995, p 74.
132. Shahid Javed Burki & Sebastian Edwards, Latin America After Mexico: Quickening the Pace, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1995.
133. Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights and development: complementary or competing concerns?', World Politics, XXXVI(2), 1984; Peter Evans, 'Class, state, and dependence in East Asia: lessons for Latin Americanists', in Frederich C Deyo (ed), The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press; and Fernando Fajnzylber, The United States and Japan as models of industrialization', in Gary Gereffi & Donald L Wyman (eds), Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
134. Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights and development: complementary or competing concerns?', World Politics, XXXVI(2), 1984; Peter Evans, 'Class, state, and dependence in East Asia: lessons for Latin Americanists', in Frederich C Deyo (ed), The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press; and Fernando Fajnzylber, The United States and Japan as models of industrialization', in Gary Gereffi & Donald L Wyman (eds), Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
135. Jack Donnelly, 'Human rights and development: complementary or competing concerns?', World Politics, XXXVI(2), 1984; Peter Evans, 'Class, state, and dependence in East Asia: lessons for Latin Americanists', in Frederich C Deyo (ed), The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press; and Fernando Fajnzylber, The United States and Japan as models of industrialization', in Gary Gereffi & Donald L Wyman (eds), Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
136. As a former Ecuadorean finance minister remarked, 'an over payment of the debt' by Ecuador has already taken place. Interview with Santiago Sevilla, Quito, 25 July 1995.