Restructuring Russian urban budgets: 1991-1995

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 49, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 989-1015

  Mitchneck, Beth ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FISCAL POLICY; LOCAL GOVERNMENTS; POLICY REFORM; URBAN PLANNING;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0031430644     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139708412485     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. See Theodore Shabad, 'The Urban-Administrative System of the USSR and Its Relevance to Geographic Research', in George J. Demko & Roland J. Fuchs (eds), Geographical Studies on the Soviet Union (Chicago, University of Chicago Department of Geography Research Paper No. 211, 1984), pp. 93-108.
2. Local here refers to the government level below the oblast', e.g. a city or district in St Petersburg.
3. Satellite towns are small towns that are directly under the jurisdiction of a central city rather than the oblast' government.
4. Budgets must be interpreted as a measure of the formal fiscal system, not as a measure of all government revenue and expenditure. The local government cannot be viewed in isolation from higher levels of government. City governments receive mandates from the oblast' and federal governments as well as financial transfers that influence the structure of their budgets. The budgets reflect only a portion of the state funds collected and spent in each place, since higher level budgets fund many activities in cities. Off-budget revenue and expenditure were also important local resources, especially in 1992 and 1993.
5. Public participation should form a third component of the explanation of political and economic priorities. It is absent from the analysis mainly because of its relatively minor role in the actual review process of public expenditure.
6. See Beth Mitchneck & David Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market in Russia', International Regional Science Review, 18, 3, 1995, pp. 267-288.
7. Data on employment and unemployment are particularly difficult to interpret because of the poor quality and low registration rates of official unemployment.
8. The stress measure is computed as the number of registered job seekers divided by the number of registered job vacancies at enterprises.
9. Interview with N. U. Marshin, September 1993.
10. See Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor ...'.
11. See Blair Ruble, Money Sings: The Changing Politics of Urban Space in Post-Soviet Yaroslavl' (Washington, DC, Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1995); Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, Local Heroes: Political Exchange and Regional Government Performance in Post-Communist Russia (Cambridge, MA, Department of Government, Harvard University Dissertation, 1994).
12. See Blair Ruble, Money Sings: The Changing Politics of Urban Space in Post-Soviet Yaroslavl' (Washington, DC, Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1995); Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, Local Heroes: Political Exchange and Regional Government Performance in Post-Communist Russia (Cambridge, MA, Department of Government, Harvard University Dissertation, 1994).
13. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
14. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
15. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
16. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
17. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
18. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
19. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
20. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
21. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
22. For reviews of Soviet budgetary practices see Daniel Berkowitz & Beth Mitchneck, 'Fiscal Decentralization in the Soviet Economy'. Comparative Economic Studies, 34, 2, Summer 1992, pp. 1-18; Robert W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1979); Raymond Hutchings, Soviet Economic Development (New York, New York University Press, 1982); Carol Lewis, The Budgetary Process in Soviet Cities (New York, Center for Government Studies, Columbia University, 1976); Carol Lewis, The Economic Functions of Local Soviets', in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.), Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Financing Soviet Cities', in Henry Morton & Robert Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1984), pp. 45-64; Henry Raimondo & Robert Stuart, 'Variations in Soviet City Finances', Growth and Change, 17, 2, April 1986, pp. 56-67; E. Shomina, 'Enterprises and the Urban Environment in the USSR', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16, 2, 1992, pp. 222-233. Additional information focusing on the economic aspects of post-Soviet fiscal practices can be found in Christine Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization. Intergovernmental Relations in Russia (Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1992); Christine Wallich (ed.), Russia and the Challenge of Fiscal Federalism (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1994).
23. Local soviets during 1992 and 1993 had access to extra-budgetary funds and a large bureaucracy consisting of standing committees.
24. St Petersburg revenue structure has a correlation of 0.96 for 1992-93 and 0.94 for 1993-94. Leninskii's correlation is weaker yet quite strong for 1991 and 1992 at 0.89. Yaroslavl' shows very strong associations throughout the 1991-96 period, 0.96 or higher.
25. CVs for tax on profits were 28.2 for Yaroslavl' for 1991-95, 28.9 for 1992 for the case study sites, and 31.4 for 1993. CVs for income tax were 16.8 for Yaroslavl' for 1991-95, 41.3 for 1992 case study sites and 65.3 for 1993.
26. For a more complete discussion of off-budget revenue and expenditure see Beth Mitchneck, 'The Changing Role of the Local Budget in Russian Cities: The Case of Yaroslavl' ', in Theodore Friedgut & Jeffrey Hahn (eds), Local Power and Post-Soviet Politics (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 73-95; Beth Mitchneck, 'The Emergence of Local Government in Russia', in Michael T. Bradshaw (ed.), The Geography of Transition (London, Belhaven Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 1997).
27. For a more complete discussion of off-budget revenue and expenditure see Beth Mitchneck, 'The Changing Role of the Local Budget in Russian Cities: The Case of Yaroslavl' ', in Theodore Friedgut & Jeffrey Hahn (eds), Local Power and Post-Soviet Politics (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 73-95; Beth Mitchneck, 'The Emergence of Local Government in Russia', in Michael T. Bradshaw (ed.), The Geography of Transition (London, Belhaven Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 1997).
28. See Wallich, Fiscal Decentralization ...
29. The vast majority of bond issues originate in St Petersburg, signifying the lack of diffusion of the use of this kind of fiscal instrument. An estimated 80% of all bond issues up to 1995 involved St Petersburg (FBIS, 24 August 1995).
30. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
31. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
32. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
33. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
34. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
35. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
36. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
37. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
38. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
39. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
40. For a review of Soviet local government and the Soviet city see the following sources: James T. Bater, The Soviet City, Ideal and Reality (London, Edward Arnold, 1980); David T. Cattell, Leningrad: a Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York, Praeger, 1968); R. A. French & F. E. I. Hamilton (eds), The Socialist City (New York, Wiley, 1979); Jeffrey W. Hahn, Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988); Jerry Hough, Soviet Local Prefects: The Role of Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969); Everett M. Jacobs, 'The Organizational Framework of Soviet Local Government,' in Everett M. Jacobs (ed.) Soviet Local Politics and Government (London, George, Allen, and Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-18; Henry W. Morton & Robert C. Stuart (eds), The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1984); Cameron Ross, Local Government in the Soviet Union: Problems of Implementation and Control (New York, St Martin's Press, 1987); Blair Ruble, Leningrad: Shaping a Soviet City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Ruble, Money Sings; V. Shapovalov, The Moscow Soviet (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1984); William Taubman, Governing Soviet Cities. Bureaucratic Politics and Urban Development in the USSR (New York, Praeger, 1973).
41. The analysis only indicates that change occurred. It does not suggest sources of causality like whether or not the change occurred at the direction of higher levels of government or on the initiative of lower levels of government.
42. The work of the legislatures was influenced by the executive branch so in a sense the legislative database reflects the work of the executive bureaucracy and the legislative offices.
43. Interviews with numerous members of the legislative and executive branches confirm the relative lack of conflict within the district (June 1992, August and September 1993).
44. Interestingly, the new Admiralteiskii raion administration inhabits the Leninskii raion building and most of the staff remains. Several interviewees suggested that the number of district employees increased after the merger!
45. The lack of city investment in the district could be related to the instability of its administrative position. The federal government had made noises about giving administrative independence to satellite towns. The city may not have wanted to make investments in a location that would soon not be part of the city.