Russians and the legal system: Mass views and behaviour in the 1990s

Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 24-55

  Reisinger, William M ^a   Miller, Arthur H ^a   Hesli, Vicki L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LEGAL SYSTEM;

EID: 0031428540     PISSN: 13523279     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13523279708415352     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. The Russian phrase 'pravovoe gosudarstvo' is the closest equivalent to the English phrase 'the rule of law', though it is a translation from the German Rechtsstaat and therefore refers to a type of state - a law-governed state. Naturally, however, pravovoe gosudarstvo developed shades of meaning among Russian legal scholars that suggest it should not be understood as being exactly similar to the German term. Discussions of the meaning of pravovoe gosudarstvo can be found in such works as John Quigley, 'The Soviet Union as a State Under the Rule of Law: An Overview', Cornell International Law Journal, Vol.23 (1990), pp.205-25; Harold J. Berman, 'The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat) (with special reference to developments in the Soviet Union)', Harriman Institute Forum, Vol.4, No.5 (1991), pp.1-12; Louise I. Shelley, 'Legal Consciousness and the Pravovoe Gosudarstvo', in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Towards the 'Rule of Law' in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.63-76; Gianmaria Ajani, 'The Rise and Fall of the Law-Based State in the Experience of Russian Legal Scholarship: Foreign Patterns and Domestic Style', in ibid., pp.3-21.
2. The Russian phrase 'pravovoe gosudarstvo' is the closest equivalent to the English phrase 'the rule of law', though it is a translation from the German Rechtsstaat and therefore refers to a type of state - a law-governed state. Naturally, however, pravovoe gosudarstvo developed shades of meaning among Russian legal scholars that suggest it should not be understood as being exactly similar to the German term. Discussions of the meaning of pravovoe gosudarstvo can be found in such works as John Quigley, 'The Soviet Union as a State Under the Rule of Law: An Overview', Cornell International Law Journal, Vol.23 (1990), pp.205-25; Harold J. Berman, 'The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat) (with special reference to developments in the Soviet Union)', Harriman Institute Forum, Vol.4, No.5 (1991), pp.1-12; Louise I. Shelley, 'Legal Consciousness and the Pravovoe Gosudarstvo', in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Towards the 'Rule of Law' in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.63-76; Gianmaria Ajani, 'The Rise and Fall of the Law-Based State in the Experience of Russian Legal Scholarship: Foreign Patterns and Domestic Style', in ibid., pp.3-21.
3. The Russian phrase 'pravovoe gosudarstvo' is the closest equivalent to the English phrase 'the rule of law', though it is a translation from the German Rechtsstaat and therefore refers to a type of state - a law-governed state. Naturally, however, pravovoe gosudarstvo developed shades of meaning among Russian legal scholars that suggest it should not be understood as being exactly similar to the German term. Discussions of the meaning of pravovoe gosudarstvo can be found in such works as John Quigley, 'The Soviet Union as a State Under the Rule of Law: An Overview', Cornell International Law Journal, Vol.23 (1990), pp.205-25; Harold J. Berman, 'The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat) (with special reference to developments in the Soviet Union)', Harriman Institute Forum, Vol.4, No.5 (1991), pp.1-12; Louise I. Shelley, 'Legal Consciousness and the Pravovoe Gosudarstvo', in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Towards the 'Rule of Law' in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.63-76; Gianmaria Ajani, 'The Rise and Fall of the Law-Based State in the Experience of Russian Legal Scholarship: Foreign Patterns and Domestic Style', in ibid., pp.3-21.
4. The Russian phrase 'pravovoe gosudarstvo' is the closest equivalent to the English phrase 'the rule of law', though it is a translation from the German Rechtsstaat and therefore refers to a type of state - a law-governed state. Naturally, however, pravovoe gosudarstvo developed shades of meaning among Russian legal scholars that suggest it should not be understood as being exactly similar to the German term. Discussions of the meaning of pravovoe gosudarstvo can be found in such works as John Quigley, 'The Soviet Union as a State Under the Rule of Law: An Overview', Cornell International Law Journal, Vol.23 (1990), pp.205-25; Harold J. Berman, 'The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State (Rechtsstaat) (with special reference to developments in the Soviet Union)', Harriman Institute Forum, Vol.4, No.5 (1991), pp.1-12; Louise I. Shelley, 'Legal Consciousness and the Pravovoe Gosudarstvo', in Donald D. Barry (ed.), Towards the 'Rule of Law' in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.63-76; Gianmaria Ajani, 'The Rise and Fall of the Law-Based State in the Experience of Russian Legal Scholarship: Foreign Patterns and Domestic Style', in ibid., pp.3-21.
5. Geoffrey de Q. Walker, The Rule of Law (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1988), p.41.
6. The inability of Russia's courts to resolve business disputes has led to an increasing reliance by Russian businesses on collection agencies, many with criminal ties. In cases in which two such 'protected ' businesses are in conflict, a 'black court' can be established to resolve the matter. For an editorial describing the effectiveness of a black court, see The Moscow Times (20 Aug. 1995), p.5. For evidence of positive steps by Russia's courts, however, see John N. Hazard, 'Is Russian Case Law Becoming Significant as a Source of Law?', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.1 (1994), pp.23-46; and the episode described by Blair A. Ruble, Money Sings: The Changing Politics of Urban Space in Post-Soviet Yaroslavl (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.82-6.
7. The inability of Russia's courts to resolve business disputes has led to an increasing reliance by Russian businesses on collection agencies, many with criminal ties. In cases in which two such 'protected ' businesses are in conflict, a 'black court' can be established to resolve the matter. For an editorial describing the effectiveness of a black court, see The Moscow Times (20 Aug. 1995), p.5. For evidence of positive steps by Russia's courts, however, see John N. Hazard, 'Is Russian Case Law Becoming Significant as a Source of Law?', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.1 (1994), pp.23-46; and the episode described by Blair A. Ruble, Money Sings: The Changing Politics of Urban Space in Post-Soviet Yaroslavl (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.82-6.
8. The inability of Russia's courts to resolve business disputes has led to an increasing reliance by Russian businesses on collection agencies, many with criminal ties. In cases in which two such 'protected ' businesses are in conflict, a 'black court' can be established to resolve the matter. For an editorial describing the effectiveness of a black court, see The Moscow Times (20 Aug. 1995), p.5. For evidence of positive steps by Russia's courts, however, see John N. Hazard, 'Is Russian Case Law Becoming Significant as a Source of Law?', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.1 (1994), pp.23-46; and the episode described by Blair A. Ruble, Money Sings: The Changing Politics of Urban Space in Post-Soviet Yaroslavl (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.82-6.
9. The legal views that we have in mind and that our survey results are meant partially to capture include, but are not limited to, what is termed 'legal consciousness': see Shelley, op. cit.; Richard S. Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Harold J. Berman, Faith and Order (Atlanta, GA: Emory University Press, 1993), pp.367-80. Shelley, for example, defines legal consciousness as awareness of the law and one's rights under the law. As discussed below, we are interested in additional outlooks, including orientations towards judicial institutions.
10. The legal views that we have in mind and that our survey results are meant partially to capture include, but are not limited to, what is termed 'legal consciousness': see Shelley, op. cit.; Richard S. Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Harold J. Berman, Faith and Order (Atlanta, GA: Emory University Press, 1993), pp.367-80. Shelley, for example, defines legal consciousness as awareness of the law and one's rights under the law. As discussed below, we are interested in additional outlooks, including orientations towards judicial institutions.
11. The legal views that we have in mind and that our survey results are meant partially to capture include, but are not limited to, what is termed 'legal consciousness': see Shelley, op. cit.; Richard S. Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Harold J. Berman, Faith and Order (Atlanta, GA: Emory University Press, 1993), pp.367-80. Shelley, for example, defines legal consciousness as awareness of the law and one's rights under the law. As discussed below, we are interested in additional outlooks, including orientations towards judicial institutions.
12. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
13. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
14. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
15. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
16. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
17. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
18. See, inter alia, Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Public Opinion and the United States Supreme Court: A Preliminary Mapping of Some Prerequisites for Court Legitimation of Regime Changes', Law and Society Review, Vol.2 (1968), pp.357-82; David Adamany and Joel Grossman, 'Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker', Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol.5 (1983), pp.405-37; Gregory A. Caldeira, 'Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court', American Political Science Review, Vol.80, No.4 (1986), pp.1209-26; Thomas R. Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989); Walter F. Murphy and Joseph Tanenhaus, 'Publicity, Public Opinion and the Court', Northwestern Law Review, Vol.84 (1990), pp.985-1023; Gregory A. Caldeira and James L. Gibson, 'The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.36, No.3 (1992), pp.635-65; James L. Gibson and Gregory A. Caldeira, 'The Legitimacy of Transnational Legal Institutions: Compliance, Support and the European Court of Justice', American Journal of Political Science, Vol.39, No.2 (1995), pp.459-89.
19. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
20. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
21. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
22. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
23. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
24. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
25. For a discussion, see Lawrence M. Friedman, The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975); works using the concept in a variety of contexts include Kathryn Hendley, 'Legal Development and Privatization in Russia: A Case Study', Soviet Economy, Vol.8, No.2 (1992), pp. 130-57; Erhard Blankenburg and Freek Bruinsma (eds.), Dutch Legal Culture, 2nd edn (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1994); Pitman B. Potter, 'Riding the Tiger: Legitimacy and Legal Culture in Post-Mao China', China Quarterly, Vol.138 (1994), pp.325-58; Joseph Sanders and V. Lee Hamilton, 'Legal Cultures and Punishment Repertoires in Japan, Russia, and the United States', Law and Society Review, Vol.26, No. 1 (1992), pp. 117-38; Herbert M. Kritzer and Frances Kahn Zemans, 'Local Legal Cultures and the Control of Litigation', Law and Society Review, Vol.27, No.3 (1993), pp.535-57; Gunter Bierbrauer, 'Towards an Understanding of Legal Culture: Variations in Individualism and Collectivism Between Kurds, Lebanese and Germans', Law and Society Review, Vol.28, No.2 (1994), pp.243-64.
26. Despite much criticism, the research spawned by Almond's work continues to define the mainstream use of lhe term political culture within political science. See Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba (eds.), The Civic Culture Revisited: An Analytic Study (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1980); Gabriel A. Almond, 'The Study of Political Culture', in Gabriel A. Almond (ed.), A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1990), pp. 138-56.
27. Despite much criticism, the research spawned by Almond's work continues to define the mainstream use of lhe term political culture within political science. See Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba (eds.), The Civic Culture Revisited: An Analytic Study (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1980); Gabriel A. Almond, 'The Study of Political Culture', in Gabriel A. Almond (ed.), A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1990), pp. 138-56.
28. Despite much criticism, the research spawned by Almond's work continues to define the mainstream use of lhe term political culture within political science. See Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba (eds.), The Civic Culture Revisited: An Analytic Study (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1980); Gabriel A. Almond, 'The Study of Political Culture', in Gabriel A. Almond (ed.), A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1990), pp. 138-56.
29. Seeking to characterize an entire society's legal culture presents daunting challenges, theoretical and practical: See, for example, David M. Engel and Barbara Yngvesson, 'Mapping Difficult Terrain: "Legal Culture", "Legal Consciousness", and Other Hazards for the Intrepid Explorer', Law and Policy, Vol.6, No.3 (1984), pp.299-307). Indeed, focusing on that as the objective might lead one to obscure important differences among types of orientations. For these reasons, we want to stress that our analyses of Russians' legal views and behaviour are not a depiction of Russia's legal culture, though they may well contribute to such a depiction.
30. Leopold Pospisil, Anthropology of Law: A Comparative Theory (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).
31. See Robert Sharlet, 'Soviet Legal Reform in Historical Context', Columbia Journal of International Law, Vol.28 (1990), pp.5-17.
32. Peter H. Solomon, Jr., 'Soviet Criminal Justice and the Great Terror', Slavic Review, Vol.46, No.3/4 (1987), pp.391-413.
33. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
34. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
35. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
36. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
37. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
38. For more on Soviet legal institutions, see William E. Butler, Soviet Law, 2nd edn (London: Butterworths, 1988). Stories of the operation of Moscow courts in the early 1960s can be found in George Feifer, Justice in Moscow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964). Both legal consultants and defence attorneys had limited powers and very low prestige in the Soviet Union. One defence attorney's story is in Dina Kaminskaya, Final Judgment: My Life as a Soviet Defense Attorney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982. See also Robert Rand, Comrade Lawyer: Inside Soviet Justice in an Era of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Michael Burrage, 'Russian Advocates: Before, During and After Perestroika', Law and Social Inquiry, Vol.18 (1993), pp.573-92. The most influential and prestigious among legal positions was that of procurator, a position with extensive investigatory and prosecutorial powers: see, for example, Gordon B. Smith, The Soviet Procuracy and the Supervision of Administration (Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1978).
39. Discussions of the tricky issue of the relationship between courts and political authorities include Owen M. Fiss, 'The Right Degree of Independence', in Irwin P. Stotzky (ed.), Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993), pp.35-40; and J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach', Journal of Legal Studies, Vol.23 (1994), pp.721-47.
40. Discussions of the tricky issue of the relationship between courts and political authorities include Owen M. Fiss, 'The Right Degree of Independence', in Irwin P. Stotzky (ed.), Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993), pp.35-40; and J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach', Journal of Legal Studies, Vol.23 (1994), pp.721-47.
41. For more on the rise and fall of the dissident movement, see Frederick C. Barghoorn, Detente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: Free Press, 1976); Peter Reddaway, Uncensored Russia: The Human Rights Movement in the Soviet Union (New York: American Heritage Press, 1972); Joshua Rubenstein, 'Dissent', in James Cracraft (ed.), The Soviet Union Today: An Interpretive Guide, 2nd edn (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp.64-76; Rudolf L. Tökés (ed.), Dissent in the USSR: Politics, Ideology and People (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
42. For more on the rise and fall of the dissident movement, see Frederick C. Barghoorn, Detente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: Free Press, 1976); Peter Reddaway, Uncensored Russia: The Human Rights Movement in the Soviet Union (New York: American Heritage Press, 1972); Joshua Rubenstein, 'Dissent', in James Cracraft (ed.), The Soviet Union Today: An Interpretive Guide, 2nd edn (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp.64-76; Rudolf L. Tökés (ed.), Dissent in the USSR: Politics, Ideology and People (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
43. For more on the rise and fall of the dissident movement, see Frederick C. Barghoorn, Detente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: Free Press, 1976); Peter Reddaway, Uncensored Russia: The Human Rights Movement in the Soviet Union (New York: American Heritage Press, 1972); Joshua Rubenstein, 'Dissent', in James Cracraft (ed.), The Soviet Union Today: An Interpretive Guide, 2nd edn (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp.64-76; Rudolf L. Tökés (ed.), Dissent in the USSR: Politics, Ideology and People (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
44. For more on the rise and fall of the dissident movement, see Frederick C. Barghoorn, Detente and the Democratic Movement in the USSR (New York: Free Press, 1976); Peter Reddaway, Uncensored Russia: The Human Rights Movement in the Soviet Union (New York: American Heritage Press, 1972); Joshua Rubenstein, 'Dissent', in James Cracraft (ed.), The Soviet Union Today: An Interpretive Guide, 2nd edn (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp.64-76; Rudolf L. Tökés (ed.), Dissent in the USSR: Politics, Ideology and People (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
45. Despite this, nineteenth-century Russian legal reforms were pathbreaking and Russian legal thinkers made important contributions to European legal thought: thus, '... when all is said and done there was in pre-revolutionary Russia a legal tradition and a system of courts that could compare to the best that contemporary Western civilization had to offer...' (Theodore Taranovski, 'The Russian Legal Tradition', Law in Russia, Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies No. 101 (Seattle: Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, 1994), pp.7-17 (p. 12)). See also Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, and Brian L. Levin-Stankevich, 'The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in tsarist Russia', in Harley D. Balzer (ed.), Russia's Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), pp.223-50.
46. Despite this, nineteenth-century Russian legal reforms were pathbreaking and Russian legal thinkers made important contributions to European legal thought: thus, '... when all is said and done there was in pre-revolutionary Russia a legal tradition and a system of courts that could compare to the best that contemporary Western civilization had to offer...' (Theodore Taranovski, 'The Russian Legal Tradition', Law in Russia, Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies No. 101 (Seattle: Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, 1994), pp.7-17 (p. 12)). See also Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, and Brian L. Levin-Stankevich, 'The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in tsarist Russia', in Harley D. Balzer (ed.), Russia's Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), pp.223-50.
47. Despite this, nineteenth-century Russian legal reforms were pathbreaking and Russian legal thinkers made important contributions to European legal thought: thus, '... when all is said and done there was in pre-revolutionary Russia a legal tradition and a system of courts that could compare to the best that contemporary Western civilization had to offer...' (Theodore Taranovski, 'The Russian Legal Tradition', Law in Russia, Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies No. 101 (Seattle: Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, 1994), pp.7-17 (p. 12)). See also Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, and Brian L. Levin-Stankevich, 'The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in tsarist Russia', in Harley D. Balzer (ed.), Russia's Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), pp.223-50.
48. Anatolii Sobchak, 'Democracy Seems to be a Reality Now, If Not in Every Respect', International Affairs (Moscow), 1995, No.2, pp.6-10 (p.7).
49. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 20 Feb. 1995; emphasis added.
50. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
51. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
52. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
53. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
54. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
55. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
56. See, for example, Robert Sharlet, The New Soviet Constitution of 1977: Analysis and Text (Brunswick, OH: Kings Court, 1978); Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness; Eugene Huskey, 'A Framework for the Analysis of Soviet Law', The Russian Review, Vol.50, No.1 (1991), pp.53-70; and Sergei Alexeyev, Law and Legal Culture in Soviet Society (Moscow: Progress, 1991). See also Igor Grazin, 'The Rule of Law: But of Which Law? Natural and Positive Law in Post-Communist Transformations', The John Marshall Law Review, Vol.26, No.3 (1993), pp.719-37 (p.721); William Kitchin, 'Legal Reform and the Expansion of Judicial Power in Russia', in C. Neal Tate and Torbjorn Vallinder (eds.), The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (New York: New York University Press, 1995), pp.441-59 (p.457). Soviet scholars conducted little published research into public opinion towards the law (as opposed to the substantial research into what Russian legal scholars called 'legal consciousness'). See Ye.L. Bonk, Ob odnoi probleme sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii obshchestvennogo mneniya o prave', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1986, No.8, pp.120-23, who argues that public opinion towards the law is a 'qualitatively different phenomenon' from legal consciousness.
57. Eugene Huskey, 'From Legal Nihilism to Pravovoe Gosudarstvo', in Barry (ed.). Towards the 'Rule of Law' in Russia?, pp.23-42, esp. pp.30-33;
58. and Huskey, 'A Framework', p.56.
59. Those who stress the importance of the societal transformations for understanding late-Soviet realities include Jerry F. Hough, Russia and the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988); and Moshe Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon revised edn (Berkeley, CO: University of California Press, 1991).
60. Those who stress the importance of the societal transformations for understanding late-Soviet realities include Jerry F. Hough, Russia and the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988); and Moshe Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon revised edn (Berkeley, CO: University of California Press, 1991).
61. For example, see A. Sobianin, E. Gel'man and O. Kaiunov, 'The Political Climate of Russia's Regions: Voters and Deputies, 1991-1993', The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, Vol.21, No.1 (1994), pp.63-84; William M. Reisinger et al., 'Political values in Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania: Sources and Implications for Democracy', British Journal of Political Science, Vol.45, No. 1 (1994), pp.199-245; David S. Mason, 'Justice, Socialism and Participation in the Postcommunist States', in James R. Kluegel, David S. Mason and Bernd Wegener (eds.), Social Justice and Political Change: Public Opinion in Capitalist and Post-Communist States (New York: de Gruyter, 1995), pp.49-80.
62. For example, see A. Sobianin, E. Gel'man and O. Kaiunov, 'The Political Climate of Russia's Regions: Voters and Deputies, 1991-1993', The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, Vol.21, No.1 (1994), pp.63-84; William M. Reisinger et al., 'Political values in Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania: Sources and Implications for Democracy', British Journal of Political Science, Vol.45, No. 1 (1994), pp.199-245; David S. Mason, 'Justice, Socialism and Participation in the Postcommunist States', in James R. Kluegel, David S. Mason and Bernd Wegener (eds.), Social Justice and Political Change: Public Opinion in Capitalist and Post-Communist States (New York: de Gruyter, 1995), pp.49-80.
63. For example, see A. Sobianin, E. Gel'man and O. Kaiunov, 'The Political Climate of Russia's Regions: Voters and Deputies, 1991-1993', The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review, Vol.21, No.1 (1994), pp.63-84; William M. Reisinger et al., 'Political values in Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania: Sources and Implications for Democracy', British Journal of Political Science, Vol.45, No. 1 (1994), pp.199-245; David S. Mason, 'Justice, Socialism and Participation in the Postcommunist States', in James R. Kluegel, David S. Mason and Bernd Wegener (eds.), Social Justice and Political Change: Public Opinion in Capitalist and Post-Communist States (New York: de Gruyter, 1995), pp.49-80.
64. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
65. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
66. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
67. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
68. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
69. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
70. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
71. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
72. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
73. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
74. For debates about the different categories of orientations and their interrelations, see, inter alia, Walter Rosenbaum, Political Culture (New York: Praeger, 1972); Martin Fishbein and leek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975); Jerry L. Yeric and John R. Todd, Public Opinion: The Visible Politics (Ithaca, NY: FE. Peacock, 1983); Barnard Hennessey, Public Opinion, 5th edn (Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1985); Eugene R. Wittkopf, On the Foreign Policy Beliefs of the American People: A Critique and Some Evidence', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.4 (1986), pp.425-45; Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears (eds.), Political Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986); Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 'How are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model', American Political Science Review, Vol.81, No.4 (1987), pp.1099-1120; Richard Herrmann, 'The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2 (1988), pp.175-203; Harry Eckstein, 'A Culturalist Theory of Political Change', American Political Science Review, Vol.82, No.3 (1988), pp.789-804; Ole Holsti and James N. Rosenau, 'The Structure of Foreign Policy Attitudes Among American Leaders', Journal of Politics, Vol.52, No. 1 (1990), pp.94-125; John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York Cambridge University Press, 1992).
75. According to figures from Russia's ministry of the interior, the number of murders committed annually in the 1990s was as follows: 15,600 in 1990; 16,122 in 1991; 23,006 in 1992; 29,213 in 1993; 32,286 in 1994; and 31,703 in 1995. Similar trends characterized the rates for other violent crimes.
76. Coverage of crime and discussion of its causes is abundant in both the Russian and the Western media. More scholarly discussions include Ariel Cohen, 'Crime Without Punishment', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.2 (1995), pp.34-45; and Stephen Handelman, Comrade Criminal: Russia's New Mafiya (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
77. Coverage of crime and discussion of its causes is abundant in both the Russian and the Western media. More scholarly discussions include Ariel Cohen, 'Crime Without Punishment', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.2 (1995), pp.34-45; and Stephen Handelman, Comrade Criminal: Russia's New Mafiya (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
78. A federal law on Courts of Arbitration (the courts that handle commercial disputes) and en Arbitration Procedural Code came into force on 1 July 1995: see Russia and Commonwealth Business Law Report, 1 June 1995. The Code will surely need more work in the coming years as the needs of the market economy become clearer.
79. President Yeltsin signed into law Part 1 of a new, market-oriented Civil Code on 30 November 1994. For a discussion, see E.A. Sukhanov, 'Russia's New Civil Code', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.5-6 (1994), pp.619-36. It came into force on 1 January 1995 and nullifies much of the 1964 Soviet-era Code. Part II was signed into law on 26 January 1996 and came into force on 1 March of that year. Neither part of the new Civil Code includes a section on land rights, which proved too controversial to achieve passage in the legislature. (President Yeltsin issues a decree covering the right to buy and sell land in March 1996.) Future parts of the Civil Code will need to cover this issue as well as a number of others, including intellectual property rights. President Yeltsin submitted a draft Criminal Procedural Code to the legislature in October 1994, but the bill remains in the legislature at the time of writing. For discussion of the debates surrounding the drafting of this Code, see Peter H. Solomon, Jr., 'The Limits of Legal Order in Post-Soviet Russia', Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol.11, No.2 (1995), pp.89-114.
80. President Yeltsin signed into law Part 1 of a new, market-oriented Civil Code on 30 November 1994. For a discussion, see E.A. Sukhanov, 'Russia's New Civil Code', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.5-6 (1994), pp.619-36. It came into force on 1 January 1995 and nullifies much of the 1964 Soviet-era Code. Part II was signed into law on 26 January 1996 and came into force on 1 March of that year. Neither part of the new Civil Code includes a section on land rights, which proved too controversial to achieve passage in the legislature. (President Yeltsin issues a decree covering the right to buy and sell land in March 1996.) Future parts of the Civil Code will need to cover this issue as well as a number of others, including intellectual property rights. President Yeltsin submitted a draft Criminal Procedural Code to the legislature in October 1994, but the bill remains in the legislature at the time of writing. For discussion of the debates surrounding the drafting of this Code, see Peter H. Solomon, Jr., 'The Limits of Legal Order in Post-Soviet Russia', Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol.11, No.2 (1995), pp.89-114.
81. See Solomon, 'The Limits of Legal Order'.
82. A report on 'The Work of the Courts of the Russian Federation in the First Half of 1994', published in Rossiiskaya yustitsiya in January 1995, complains about the low pay and poor working conditions of court aides as a hindrance to the judges' work and to the courts' ability to see that its rulings are obeyed.
83. Solomon, 'The Limits of Legal Order', p.98.
84. On rights in the 1993 constitution, see Antti Korkeakivi, 'Russia on the Rights Track: Human Rights in the New Constitution', Parker School Journal of European Law, Vol.1, No.2 (1994), pp.233-53; Antti Korkeakivi, 'The Russian Constitutional Court and Human Rights', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.5-6 (1994), pp.591-617; and Tanya Smith, 'The Violation of Basic Rights in the Russian Federation', East European Constitutional Review, Vol.3, No.3-4 (1994), pp.42-7.
85. On rights in the 1993 constitution, see Antti Korkeakivi, 'Russia on the Rights Track: Human Rights in the New Constitution', Parker School Journal of European Law, Vol.1, No.2 (1994), pp.233-53; Antti Korkeakivi, 'The Russian Constitutional Court and Human Rights', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.5-6 (1994), pp.591-617; and Tanya Smith, 'The Violation of Basic Rights in the Russian Federation', East European Constitutional Review, Vol.3, No.3-4 (1994), pp.42-7.
86. On rights in the 1993 constitution, see Antti Korkeakivi, 'Russia on the Rights Track: Human Rights in the New Constitution', Parker School Journal of European Law, Vol.1, No.2 (1994), pp.233-53; Antti Korkeakivi, 'The Russian Constitutional Court and Human Rights', Parker School Journal of East European Law, Vol.1, No.5-6 (1994), pp.591-617; and Tanya Smith, 'The Violation of Basic Rights in the Russian Federation', East European Constitutional Review, Vol.3, No.3-4 (1994), pp.42-7.
87. Russia has more lawyers per capita than a few Western countries, but it is near the low end of the scale: see John C. Reitz, 'Progress in Building Institutions for the Rule of Law', in Robert D. Grey (ed.), Democratic Theory and Post-Communist Change (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1996), pp.144-89, n.21. Moreover, most Russian legal experts received their training prior to 1988, when Gorbachev legitimized the law-governed state.
88. For a useful discussion of the concept of the national interest and its relationship to the rule of law and democracy, see Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In from the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
89. See Arthur H. Miller, Vicki L. Hesli and William M. Reisinger, 'Conceptions of Democracy Among Mass and Elite in Post-Soviet Societies', British Journal of Political Science, Vol.27, No.2 (April 1997), pp. 157-90.