Tribal recreation and recreating tribalism: Culture, leisure and social control on South Africa's gold mines, 1940-1950

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 473-489

  Badenhorst, Cecile ^a   Mather, Charles ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL STUDY;

EID: 0031428113     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079708708551     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Thanks to Saul Dubow and two JSAS referees for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.
2. R. Archer and A. Bullion, The South African Game: Sport and Racism (London, 1982).
3. 'Work and Wages: Games Instead of Crime', The Star, 28 September 1932; There are parallels between these initiatives and attempts in industrialising Britain and North America to repress and exclude undesirable uses of free time and replace them with leisure patterns which were more 'civilising'. See D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organised Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); C. Clarke and C. Critcher, The Devil Makes Work: Leisure in Capitalist Britain (London, 1985); A. Tomlinson, (ed) Leisure and Social Control (Birmingham, 1981); T. Couzens, 'Moralizing Leisure Time: The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 314-337.
4. 'Work and Wages: Games Instead of Crime', The Star, 28 September 1932; There are parallels between these initiatives and attempts in industrialising Britain and North America to repress and exclude undesirable uses of free time and replace them with leisure patterns which were more 'civilising'. See D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organised Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); C. Clarke and C. Critcher, The Devil Makes Work: Leisure in Capitalist Britain (London, 1985); A. Tomlinson, (ed) Leisure and Social Control (Birmingham, 1981); T. Couzens, 'Moralizing Leisure Time: The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 314-337.
5. 'Work and Wages: Games Instead of Crime', The Star, 28 September 1932; There are parallels between these initiatives and attempts in industrialising Britain and North America to repress and exclude undesirable uses of free time and replace them with leisure patterns which were more 'civilising'. See D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organised Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); C. Clarke and C. Critcher, The Devil Makes Work: Leisure in Capitalist Britain (London, 1985); A. Tomlinson, (ed) Leisure and Social Control (Birmingham, 1981); T. Couzens, 'Moralizing Leisure Time: The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 314-337.
6. 'Work and Wages: Games Instead of Crime', The Star, 28 September 1932; There are parallels between these initiatives and attempts in industrialising Britain and North America to repress and exclude undesirable uses of free time and replace them with leisure patterns which were more 'civilising'. See D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organised Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); C. Clarke and C. Critcher, The Devil Makes Work: Leisure in Capitalist Britain (London, 1985); A. Tomlinson, (ed) Leisure and Social Control (Birmingham, 1981); T. Couzens, 'Moralizing Leisure Time: The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 314-337.
7. 'Work and Wages: Games Instead of Crime', The Star, 28 September 1932; There are parallels between these initiatives and attempts in industrialising Britain and North America to repress and exclude undesirable uses of free time and replace them with leisure patterns which were more 'civilising'. See D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organised Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); C. Clarke and C. Critcher, The Devil Makes Work: Leisure in Capitalist Britain (London, 1985); A. Tomlinson, (ed) Leisure and Social Control (Birmingham, 1981); T. Couzens, 'Moralizing Leisure Time: The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 314-337.
8. Archer and Bullion, The South African Game, pp. 118-125; see also S. Dubow 'Race, Civilisation And Culture: The Elaboration of the Segregationist Discourse in the Inter-War Years', in S. Marks and S. Trapido (eds), The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth-century South Africa (London, 1987), pp. 71-94.
9. Archer and Bullion, The South African Game, pp. 118-125; see also S. Dubow 'Race, Civilisation And Culture: The Elaboration of the Segregationist Discourse in the Inter-War Years', in S. Marks and S. Trapido (eds), The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth-century South Africa (London, 1987), pp. 71-94.
10. According to Archer and Bullion, 'After 1948, at least for the black population, almost all activity became explicitly political, including sport - a fact that was recognised by all political parties ... Their (National Party) programme and dogma required the retribalization of African society, including African social and cultural life and sport.' Archer and Buillon, The South African Game, p. 125. This argument ignores efforts before 1948 to retribalise African society.
11. There are parallels to this process in North America where leisure and recreation was organised to control and 'Americanise' the children of immigrants, Other' races, and Other' religions. See C. Goodman, Choosing Sides (New York, 1979); D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals; R. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will (Cambridge, 1983); F. G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrialising City, 1877-1919 (New York, 1984).
12. There are parallels to this process in North America where leisure and recreation was organised to control and 'Americanise' the children of immigrants, Other' races, and Other' religions. See C. Goodman, Choosing Sides (New York, 1979); D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals; R. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will (Cambridge, 1983); F. G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrialising City, 1877-1919 (New York, 1984).
13. There are parallels to this process in North America where leisure and recreation was organised to control and 'Americanise' the children of immigrants, Other' races, and Other' religions. See C. Goodman, Choosing Sides (New York, 1979); D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals; R. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will (Cambridge, 1983); F. G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrialising City, 1877-1919 (New York, 1984).
14. There are parallels to this process in North America where leisure and recreation was organised to control and 'Americanise' the children of immigrants, Other' races, and Other' religions. See C. Goodman, Choosing Sides (New York, 1979); D. Cavallo, Muscles and Morals; R. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will (Cambridge, 1983); F. G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrialising City, 1877-1919 (New York, 1984).
15. Previous governments were involved in much more ambitious attempts to retribalise Africans long before 1948. See for instance M. Lacey, Working for Boroko (Johannesburg, 1981); S. Marks, The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class, Nationalism and the State in Twentieth Century Natal (New Haven, 1986).
16. Previous governments were involved in much more ambitious attempts to retribalise Africans long before 1948. See for instance M. Lacey, Working for Boroko (Johannesburg, 1981); S. Marks, The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class, Nationalism and the State in Twentieth Century Natal (New Haven, 1986).
17. C. M. Badenhorst, 'Mines, Missionaries and the Municipality: Organised African Sport and Recreation in Johannesburg, ca 1920-1950', unpublished PhD thesis. Queen's University, Kingston, 1992.
18. Cited in R. M. Packard, White Plague, Black Labor (Los Angeles, 1989), p. 78.
19. Dubow, 'Race, Civilisation and Culture'; T. Asad 'From the History of Colonial Anthropology to the Anthropology of Western Hegemony', in G. W. Stocking (ed), Colonial Situations (Wisconsin, 1991) pp. 63-88.
20. Dubow, 'Race, Civilisation and Culture'; T. Asad 'From the History of Colonial Anthropology to the Anthropology of Western Hegemony', in G. W. Stocking (ed), Colonial Situations (Wisconsin, 1991) pp. 63-88.
21. See, for example, W. Beinart, The Political Economy of Pondoland, 1860-1930 (Cambridge, 1982); J. Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Kingston, 1987).
22. See, for example, W. Beinart, The Political Economy of Pondoland, 1860-1930 (Cambridge, 1982); J. Crush, The Struggle for Swazi Labour, 1890-1920 (Kingston, 1987).
23. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 20; K. Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting: The Role of the Isitshozi in the Development of Ethnic Organisations in the Compound', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 55-78; P. La Hausse, ' "The Cows of Nongoloza": Youth, Crime and Amalaita Gangs in Durban, 1900-1936', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 79-111; P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1890-1910 (Johannesburg, 1994); W. Beinart, 'The Origins of the Indlavini: Male Associations and Migrant Labour in the Transkei', African Studies, 50 (1991), pp. 103-128.
24. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 20; K. Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting: The Role of the Isitshozi in the Development of Ethnic Organisations in the Compound', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 55-78; P. La Hausse, ' "The Cows of Nongoloza": Youth, Crime and Amalaita Gangs in Durban, 1900-1936', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 79-111; P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1890-1910 (Johannesburg, 1994); W. Beinart, 'The Origins of the Indlavini: Male Associations and Migrant Labour in the Transkei', African Studies, 50 (1991), pp. 103-128.
25. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 20; K. Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting: The Role of the Isitshozi in the Development of Ethnic Organisations in the Compound', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 55-78; P. La Hausse, ' "The Cows of Nongoloza": Youth, Crime and Amalaita Gangs in Durban, 1900-1936', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 79-111; P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1890-1910 (Johannesburg, 1994); W. Beinart, 'The Origins of the Indlavini: Male Associations and Migrant Labour in the Transkei', African Studies, 50 (1991), pp. 103-128.
26. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 20; K. Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting: The Role of the Isitshozi in the Development of Ethnic Organisations in the Compound', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 55-78; P. La Hausse, ' "The Cows of Nongoloza": Youth, Crime and Amalaita Gangs in Durban, 1900-1936', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 79-111; P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1890-1910 (Johannesburg, 1994); W. Beinart, 'The Origins of the Indlavini: Male Associations and Migrant Labour in the Transkei', African Studies, 50 (1991), pp. 103-128.
27. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration (Johannesburg, 1994), p. 20; K. Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting: The Role of the Isitshozi in the Development of Ethnic Organisations in the Compound', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 55-78; P. La Hausse, ' "The Cows of Nongoloza": Youth, Crime and Amalaita Gangs in Durban, 1900-1936', Journal of Southern African Studies, 16, 1 (1990), pp. 79-111; P. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Labourers in Mozambique and South Africa c. 1890-1910 (Johannesburg, 1994); W. Beinart, 'The Origins of the Indlavini: Male Associations and Migrant Labour in the Transkei', African Studies, 50 (1991), pp. 103-128.
28. Badenhorst, 'Mines, Missionaries and the Municipality'.
29. See A. H. Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy: The Struggle for the Gold Mines' Labour Supply, 1890-1920 (Kingston, 1985). See also F. A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold (London, 1976), pp. 26-34; P. Richardson and J. J. van Helten, 'Labour in the South African Gold Mining Industry, 1886-1914' in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 77-98.
30. See A. H. Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy: The Struggle for the Gold Mines' Labour Supply, 1890-1920 (Kingston, 1985). See also F. A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold (London, 1976), pp. 26-34; P. Richardson and J. J. van Helten, 'Labour in the South African Gold Mining Industry, 1886-1914' in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 77-98.
31. See A. H. Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy: The Struggle for the Gold Mines' Labour Supply, 1890-1920 (Kingston, 1985). See also F. A. Johnstone, Class, Race and Gold (London, 1976), pp. 26-34; P. Richardson and J. J. van Helten, 'Labour in the South African Gold Mining Industry, 1886-1914' in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 77-98.
32. Moodie, Going for Gold, pp. 44-75.
33. See P. Pearson, 'Authority and Control in a South African Goldmine Compound', African Studies Institute Paper, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1977; S. Moroney, 'The Development of the Compound as a Mechanism of Worker Control, 1900-1912', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, (1978), pp. 29-49.
34. See P. Pearson, 'Authority and Control in a South African Goldmine Compound', African Studies Institute Paper, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1977; S. Moroney, 'The Development of the Compound as a Mechanism of Worker Control, 1900-1912', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, (1978), pp. 29-49.
35. T. D. Moodie, 'Social Existence and the Practice of Personal Integrity: Narratives of Resistance on the South African Gold Mines' in A. D. Spiegel and P. A. McAllister (eds), Tradition and Transition in Southern Africa (Johannesburg, 1991), pp. 39-63.
36. 'In carrying out that responsibility, however, he [the compound manager] in fact permitted much that was formally forbidden so long as it did not threaten order. Thus, informally, power was not exercised according to management blueprint'. T. D. Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 20.
37. For more on the question of social control see C. van Onselen, Chibaro. African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1933 (London, 1976); J. Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound', paper presented at the Eighth International Conference of Historical Geographers, Vancouver, 1992; For a contemporary analysis of mine compounds see W. G. James, 'Beyond Total Institutions: The Case of the South African Mine Compound', paper presented at the African Studies Seminar Series, Queen's University, Kingston, 1990; S. Moroney, 'Mine Married Quarters', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 259-269.
38. For more on the question of social control see C. van Onselen, Chibaro. African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1933 (London, 1976); J. Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound', paper presented at the Eighth International Conference of Historical Geographers, Vancouver, 1992; For a contemporary analysis of mine compounds see W. G. James, 'Beyond Total Institutions: The Case of the South African Mine Compound', paper presented at the African Studies Seminar Series, Queen's University, Kingston, 1990; S. Moroney, 'Mine Married Quarters', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 259-269.
39. For more on the question of social control see C. van Onselen, Chibaro. African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1933 (London, 1976); J. Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound', paper presented at the Eighth International Conference of Historical Geographers, Vancouver, 1992; For a contemporary analysis of mine compounds see W. G. James, 'Beyond Total Institutions: The Case of the South African Mine Compound', paper presented at the African Studies Seminar Series, Queen's University, Kingston, 1990; S. Moroney, 'Mine Married Quarters', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 259-269.
40. For more on the question of social control see C. van Onselen, Chibaro. African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1933 (London, 1976); J. Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound', paper presented at the Eighth International Conference of Historical Geographers, Vancouver, 1992; For a contemporary analysis of mine compounds see W. G. James, 'Beyond Total Institutions: The Case of the South African Mine Compound', paper presented at the African Studies Seminar Series, Queen's University, Kingston, 1990; S. Moroney, 'Mine Married Quarters', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 259-269.
41. Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 182; see also Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting'.
42. Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 182; see also Breckenridge, 'Migrancy, Crime and Faction Fighting'.
43. T. D. Moodie, 'Migrancy and Male Sexuality on the South African Gold Mines', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14 (1988), pp. 228-256; T. D. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike of 1946' Journal of Southern African Studies, 13 (1986), pp. 1-35.
44. T. D. Moodie, 'Migrancy and Male Sexuality on the South African Gold Mines', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14 (1988), pp. 228-256; T. D. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike of 1946' Journal of Southern African Studies, 13 (1986), pp. 1-35.
45. Central Archives Depot, Pretoria (CAD), Native Affairs Department (NTS), Vol 2225/442-280-1: 'Report of the Witwatersrand Mine Natives' Wages Commission', 1943, (Commissioner: C. Lansdown).
46. Moodie, The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike', p. 6; Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound'. Tracey recorded part of a Chopi song sung on the gold mines: 'We saw you, Blanketi! You say to the clerk, "I am sick," and he said, "Sit down, boy, the compound manager will come." But when the compound manager came he said, "By your mother! You are drunk. Go and dress for work." ' H. Tracey, Chopi Musicians (Oxford, 1948), p. 82.
47. Moodie, The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike', p. 6; Crush, 'The Genealogy of the Compound'. Tracey recorded part of a Chopi song sung on the gold mines: 'We saw you, Blanketi! You say to the clerk, "I am sick," and he said, "Sit down, boy, the compound manager will come." But when the compound manager came he said, "By your mother! You are drunk. Go and dress for work." ' H. Tracey, Chopi Musicians (Oxford, 1948), p. 82.
48. Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 161.
49. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'. See also C. M. Rogerson and D. M. Hart, 'The Survival of the 'Informal Sector': The Shebeens of Black Johannesburg', GeoJournal, 12 (1986), pp. 153-166; P. Bonner, 'Backs to the Fence: Law, Liquor and the Search for Social Control in an East Rand Town, 1929-1942', in J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Ohio, 1992), pp. 189-213.
50. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'. See also C. M. Rogerson and D. M. Hart, 'The Survival of the 'Informal Sector': The Shebeens of Black Johannesburg', GeoJournal, 12 (1986), pp. 153-166; P. Bonner, 'Backs to the Fence: Law, Liquor and the Search for Social Control in an East Rand Town, 1929-1942', in J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Ohio, 1992), pp. 189-213.
51. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'. See also C. M. Rogerson and D. M. Hart, 'The Survival of the 'Informal Sector': The Shebeens of Black Johannesburg', GeoJournal, 12 (1986), pp. 153-166; P. Bonner, 'Backs to the Fence: Law, Liquor and the Search for Social Control in an East Rand Town, 1929-1942', in J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Ohio, 1992), pp. 189-213.
52. Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa's Mining Economy, pp. 153-170.
53. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity, pp. 75-76.
54. W. L. Speight, 'A Clearing House for Mine Labour, Work of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association', The African World, 18 November, 1939.
55. '330,000 Natives Arrived in 1938 for Mines', The Star, 3 February 1939.
56. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity, pp. 66-77; Coplan argues that as early as '... the 1870s group dancing became a major form of recreation and a means of expressing ethnic-regional identification and rivalry'. D. Coplan, 'The Emergence of African Working Class Culture', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 360-378.
57. Harries, Work, Culture and Identity, pp. 66-77; Coplan argues that as early as '... the 1870s group dancing became a major form of recreation and a means of expressing ethnic-regional identification and rivalry'. D. Coplan, 'The Emergence of African Working Class Culture', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone (eds), Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp. 360-378.
58. This paper deals with the form and meaning of dancing only in a rudimentary fashion. For more details of this aspect of mine dancing, see Coplan, 'The Emergence of an African Working Class Culture'.
59. Transvaal Administration Department (TAD), Government Native Labour Bureau (GNLB) 125 2201/13/D110, 'Resolution of the Witwatersrand Church Council', 12 July 1915.
60. TAD GNLB 125 2201/13/D110: Director of Native Labour (DNL), Johannesburg Native Affairs Department (NAD) Benoni, 13 October 1916: Ibid., Acting DNL to the Secretary for Native Affairs (SNA), Pretoria, 16 October 1916.
61. TAD GNLB 362 48/25: DNL, Johannesburg to Inspector Native Affairs Department, 18 February, 1925; ibid., DNL, Johannesburg to Deputy Commissioner of Police, Johannesburg, 16 March 1925.
62. TAD GNLB 125 2201/13/D110: Circular letter to mines from the WNLA, 30 August 1921.
63. 'Native Labour Lessons From Last Year's Shortage', The Star, 27 April 1926.
64. Hugh Tracey asked the Chopi on the mines if was true that their compositions were never as good on the mines as they were at home. They replied that they could make up the music but that life was dull at the mines in comparison with their villages. Subject matter, therefore, was limited and material dealt with mine life. Tracey, Chopi Musicians, p. 113.
65. This indicates a process of change within 'tribal' dancing. Later, when the mines started to promote dancing, they focussed on traditional aspects.
66. Tracey, Chopi Musicians, p. 112. For more information on the Chopi see L. Vail and L. White, 'The Development of Forms: The Chopi Migodo' in L. Vail and L. White (eds), Power and the Praise Poem: Southern African Voices in History (Virginia, 1991), pp. 112-154.
67. Tracey, Chopi Musicians, p. 112. For more information on the Chopi see L. Vail and L. White, 'The Development of Forms: The Chopi Migodo' in L. Vail and L. White (eds), Power and the Praise Poem: Southern African Voices in History (Virginia, 1991), pp. 112-154.
68. CAD, South African Railways and Harbours (SAS) 1483 TTM39/12: Letter from General Manager Gold Producer's Committee to the General Manager S. A. Railways and Harbours, 26 September 1930; also see letter from Johannesburg Publicity Association to W. M. Wills, 15 August 1934. In the early 1930s, dances were also being held by the municipal Native Affairs Department which organised their own teams for overseas and local tourists. Admission fees were to 'be devoted to the furtherance of the objectives of the Bantu Dance Team', Rand Daily Mail, 8 May 1934.
69. Bantu War Dances Create a Problem', Bantu World, 16 April 1932.
70. Interview, T. Mthembu, 18 April 1991.
71. Natal Archives Depot (NA), American Board of Missionaries Collection (ABM) A608 B/2171: Letter from Dexter Taylor to Johannesburg Non-European Affairs Department (NEAD), 2 September 1938; CAD, NTS 2029 38/280A: 'Deferred Pay Interest Fund', Minutes of the Meeting, 9 August 1924; T. Couzens, The New African (Johannesburg, 1985) p. 96.
72. R. Phillips, The Bantu are Coming (Johannesburg, 1930), pp. 141-152; CAD, 'Report of the Native Economic Commission', 1930-32, U.G. 22-1932 (NEC), K26 Vol. 20: 'Evidence on Native Recreation' by Ray Phillips.
73. R. Phillips, The Bantu are Coming (Johannesburg, 1930), pp. 141-152; CAD, 'Report of the Native Economic Commission', 1930-32, U.G. 22-1932 (NEC), K26 Vol. 20: 'Evidence on Native Recreation' by Ray Phillips.
74. CAD, NEC K26 Vol. 35: 'Final Report of the Native Economic Commission', p. 568.
75. Phillips, The Bantu are Coming, p. 148.
76. A. Macmillan in his coffee-table book on Johannesburg notes that the mining industry 'has long recognised the desirability of affording opportunity to mine natives for profitable occupation during their leisure time' indicating some popular awareness of the 'benefits' of recreation for miners. A. Macmillan, The Golden City (London, 1934), p. 373.
77. CAD, NTS 2029 38/280A: 'Deferred Pay Interest Board', Minutes of the Meeting, 11 June 1931; also, 27 January 1932; 4 May 1932; 12 August 1932.
78. 'Care of the Native Worker: A Great Tradition, the Mines Set an Example', The Star, 22 September 1936.
79. 'Sports in Mine Compounds', The Star, 29 December 1936.
80. Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 21.
81. Crush et al. South Africa's Labor Empire, p. 12.
82. Ibid., p. 12.
83. At this stage the gold mining industry employed 45,000 European and 320,000 African employees, Chamber of Mines Archive (CMA) SS 1, 2245/2298: Gold Producers' Committee, June 1943.
84. University of the Witwatersrand (UW), South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) AD843/RJ Aa 12.10.25, 'SAIRR Memorandum to the Native Mine Wages Commission', 1943';
85. Aa 12.10.24: 'Summary of Evidence for Mine Natives' Wages Commission', 5 July 1943.
86. CAD, NTS Vol 2225/442-280-1: 'Report of the Witwatersrand Mine Natives' Wages Commission', p. 31.
87. CAD, NTS Vol 2225/442-280-1: 'Report of the Witwatersrand Mine Natives' Wages Commission', Evidence of the Gold producers' Committee of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, Statement No. 1, 5 May 1943.
88. This may be part of the growing interest in physical education and labour efficiency at the time. CMA SS 1, 2117/0175-0176: Gold Producers' Committee, 10 September 1943.
89. CMA SS 1, 2117/0175-0176: Gold Producers' Committee, 10 September 1943.
90. 'Introducing the Rand's Native Mineworkers', The SA Mining and Engineering Journal, 2 September 1944, pp. 3-5.
91. The 'induna' was appointed by the compound manager and usually received higher wages, larger rations of meat and beer, and lived in a private room. In return, he was given the role of keeping order in the compound and settling quarrels. Compound police were also hand-picked by the compound manager. They carried sticks and guarded the compound gate and also had the power to search or detain workers. In the dormitories, the Sibunda was chosen by his room mates to maintain order in the dormitories. See L. Callinicos, Gold and Workers, 1886-1924 (Johannesburg, 1989), p. 47.
92. CAD, NTS Vol 2225/442-280-1: 'Report of the Witwatersrand Mine Natives' Wages Commission', Evidence of the Gold Producers' Committee of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, Statement No. 12, 19 July 1943.
93. Declining output, escalating working costs, a fixed gold price and the rising costs of supplies during the inflationary war period resulted in the profitability crisis. The mining industry's reaction to the labour shortage was to increase worker productivity through mechanisation, tighter supervision, scientific management. See W. James 'Grounds for a Strike: South African Gold Mining in the 1940s', African Economic History, 16 (1987), pp. 1-22.
94. For a more detailed analysis of the reasons for the 1946 strike see Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'; James, 'Grounds for a Strike'; B. Hirson, Yours for the Union (Johannesburg, 1990), pp. 164-195.
95. For a more detailed analysis of the reasons for the 1946 strike see Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'; James, 'Grounds for a Strike'; B. Hirson, Yours for the Union (Johannesburg, 1990), pp. 164-195.
96. For a more detailed analysis of the reasons for the 1946 strike see Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'; James, 'Grounds for a Strike'; B. Hirson, Yours for the Union (Johannesburg, 1990), pp. 164-195.
97. Moodie, 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike'.
98. CMA SS 1926/2033-2035: 'Report on the Department of Social Services' by Dr C. C. P. Anning, 23 September 1949.
99. See M. Smith, 'Mining Disaster in Instalments: The Completion of the Foundations for the Modern Health and Safety System on the Witwatersrand Gold Mines, 1930-39', History Workshop, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1990.
100. CMA SS 1926/2033-2035: Report on the Department of Social Services by Dr C. C. P. Anning, 23 September 1949.
101. Ibid.
102. 70 Ibid.
103. The DNL, under the Native Labour Regulation Act of 1911, was in charge of Inspectors of Native Labour who were to act as 'protectors' of African labour. It was a sub-department of the NAD. For the structures of state control of mine labour, see D. Duncan, The Regulation of Working Conditions for Africans. 1918-1948', History Workshop, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (1990).
104. CMA Native Labour Advisory Committee 2053/701: 'Report on the Questionnaire by NAD Labour Officers on Conditions Affecting Natives Employed on the Gold Mines', April 1949, Circulated to the Gold Producers' Committee 6 September 1949.
105. CMA SS 1, 2068/2438-2444: 'Report on Recreation', 30 March 1946; CMA SS 1, 2068/2434: Letter from Chamber of Mines to Anglo American Corporation, 23 February 1945.
106. CMA SS 1, 2068/2438-2∼: 'Report on Recreation', 30 March 1946.
107. CMA SS 1, 2068/2452: Letter from the Association of Mine Managers to the Gold Producers' Committee, 11 June 1946.
108. The circular gave a detailed description of what facilities should be organised. 'Circular: Recreational and Educational Facilities for Non-European Employees on the Gold Mines, Recommendations of the Association of Mine Managers', 6 September 1946; CMA SS 1, 2068/2466: Letter from the Association of Mine Managers to the Gold producers' Committee, 18 October, 1946.
109. CAD, Native Commissioner Johannesburg (KJB) 496 64/52/1: Robinson Deep Social Centre Bulletin 2 February, 1947.
110. H. Tracey, African Dances of the Witwatersrand Gold Mines (Johannesburg, 1952). Andrew Tracey remarked that his father designed a D-shaped mine-dance arena at Crown Mines in the late 1940s. It had hidden entrances to enhance the drama, Interview, A. Tracey, 20 May 1991.
111. CAD, KJB 496 64/52/1: Memo to the DNL from the Johannesburg Native Commissioner on Social Services on the Mines, 10 January, 1947.
112. Pathfinders were the African version of Boy Scouts.
113. UW, Rheinallt Jones Papers A394 G2/16: Report by J. D. Rheinallt Jones, Adviser on Native Affairs to the Anglo American Corporation of South Africa, on 'Leisure Time Activities for Native Mine Workers', 22 October 1947. See 'Mine Natives' Recreation Problem', The Star. 29 June 1948.
114. UW, Rheinallt Jones Papers A394 G2/16: 'Report on Leisure Time Activities for Native Mine Workers'.
115. UW, Rheinallt Jones Papers A394 G2/16: 'Report on Leisure Time Activities for Native Mine Workers'.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid.
118. Ibid.
119. CMA SS 3 1857/1760-1783: Transvaal Chamber of Mines Advisory Committee on Social Services. 'Survey of Recreational Facilities Existing for Natives Employed in the Gold Mining Industry', by C. C. P. Anning, 16 February 1948.
120. Mr Mthembu noted that, before 1946, those miners interested in soccer received permission from their Indunas at the compound to play in township leagues. Players had to pay for themselves and provide all their own equipment. He said soccer was popular. Mine dancing, by contrast, became more of a white spectator activity than a Black one. Interview, T. Mthembu, 18 April 1991.
121. CMA SS 3 1857/1760: Anning, 'Survey of Recreational Facilities'.
122. CMA SS 3 1857/1760-1783: Anning. 'Survey of Recreational Facilities'.
123. Ibid.
124. CMA Native Labour Advisory Committee 2053/1300: Memorandum recording the comments and recommendations made by the Gold Producer's Committee on the contents of the report prepared by the Labour Officers of the Department of Native Affairs on the conditions affecting Natives employed on the Gold Mines, Members of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, 9 February 1951.
125. Moodie notes that although ' ... the mine sought to control workers' leisure time, compound dwellers obliged management to leave space for their own activities.' Moodie, Going for Gold, p. 20.