Landscapes, fields and soils: Understanding the history of soil fertility management in southern Zimbabwe

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 615-634

  Scoones, Ian ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; SOIL FERTILITY; SOIL MANAGEMENT;

ZIMBABWE;

EID: 0031426918     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079708708560     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. 'Development narratives' tell stories about development and environment scenarios. See E. Roe, 'Development Narratives or Making the Best of Blueprint Development', World Development, 19 (1991), pp. 287-300. Narratives 'serve to standardise, package and label environmental problems so that they appear to be universally applicable and to justify equally standardised, off-the-shelf solutions': see M. Leach and R. Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land. Challenging Received Wisdom on the African Environment (James Currey, London, 1996), p. 8.
2. 'Development narratives' tell stories about development and environment scenarios. See E. Roe, 'Development Narratives or Making the Best of Blueprint Development', World Development, 19 (1991), pp. 287-300. Narratives 'serve to standardise, package and label environmental problems so that they appear to be universally applicable and to justify equally standardised, off-the-shelf solutions': see M. Leach and R. Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land. Challenging Received Wisdom on the African Environment (James Currey, London, 1996), p. 8.
3. These are two examples of many derived from scientific sources, such as D. Pimental, 'Environmental and Economics Costs of Soil Conservation and Conservation Benefits', Science, 267 (1995), pp. 1117-1123 and more policy-oriented sources, such as World Bank-FAO, 'Recapitalization of Soil Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa' (World Bank, Washington DC/FAO, Rome, 1996).
4. These are two examples of many derived from scientific sources, such as D. Pimental, 'Environmental and Economics Costs of Soil Conservation and Conservation Benefits', Science, 267 (1995), pp. 1117-1123 and more policy-oriented sources, such as World Bank-FAO, 'Recapitalization of Soil Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa' (World Bank, Washington DC/FAO, Rome, 1996).
5. This statement comes from World Bank, Natural Resource Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Restoration of Soil Fertility. A Concept Paper and Action Plan, (Africa Region, World Bank, Washington DC. 1996), p. 1, at the beginning of a key document stating the Bank's position in this area.
6. This study was carried out for the FAO and is reported in M. Stocking, 'The Cost of Soil Erosion in Zimbabwe in Terms of the Loss of Three Major Nutrients', Soil Conservation Programme, Land and Water Division, Working Paper, 3 (FAO, Rome, 1986). A critical overview of work on land degradation is contained in Y. Biot, R. Lambert, and S. Perkin, 'What's the Problem? An Essay on Land Degradation, Science and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa', Discussion Paper 222 (School of Development Studies, UEA, Norwich, 1992).
7. This study was carried out for the FAO and is reported in M. Stocking, 'The Cost of Soil Erosion in Zimbabwe in Terms of the Loss of Three Major Nutrients', Soil Conservation Programme, Land and Water Division, Working Paper, 3 (FAO, Rome, 1986). A critical overview of work on land degradation is contained in Y. Biot, R. Lambert, and S. Perkin, 'What's the Problem? An Essay on Land Degradation, Science and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa', Discussion Paper 222 (School of Development Studies, UEA, Norwich, 1992).
8. See J. Keeley and I. Scoones, Development Narratives and Soil Fertility Management in Africa (IDS, Brighton, forthcoming) for a more detailed discussion of contemporary policy narratives on soil fertility management, and the associated large scale initiatives being planned to tackle 'the problem' by United Nations organisations, members of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research, bilateral donors and national governments. The parallels with the desertification debate are clear, with similar international actors involved, similar arguments being put forward and similar interests being played out as discussed by J. Swift in 'Desertification: Narratives, Winners and Losers', in Leach and Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land, pp. 73-91.
9. See J. Keeley and I. Scoones, Development Narratives and Soil Fertility Management in Africa (IDS, Brighton, forthcoming) for a more detailed discussion of contemporary policy narratives on soil fertility management, and the associated large scale initiatives being planned to tackle 'the problem' by United Nations organisations, members of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research, bilateral donors and national governments. The parallels with the desertification debate are clear, with similar international actors involved, similar arguments being put forward and similar interests being played out as discussed by J. Swift in 'Desertification: Narratives, Winners and Losers', in Leach and Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land, pp. 73-91.
10. For details on Chivi see I. Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities: Farming Livelihoods in Dryland Africa: Lessons from Africa (Zed Press, London, 1996). For Mazvihwa, see I. Scoones, 'Livestock Populations and the Household Economy: A Case Study from Southern Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990) and K. Wilson, 'Ecological Dynamics and Human Welfare: A Case Study of Population, Health and Nutrition in Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990).
11. For details on Chivi see I. Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities: Farming Livelihoods in Dryland Africa: Lessons from Africa (Zed Press, London, 1996). For Mazvihwa, see I. Scoones, 'Livestock Populations and the Household Economy: A Case Study from Southern Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990) and K. Wilson, 'Ecological Dynamics and Human Welfare: A Case Study of Population, Health and Nutrition in Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990).
12. For details on Chivi see I. Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities: Farming Livelihoods in Dryland Africa: Lessons from Africa (Zed Press, London, 1996). For Mazvihwa, see I. Scoones, 'Livestock Populations and the Household Economy: A Case Study from Southern Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990) and K. Wilson, 'Ecological Dynamics and Human Welfare: A Case Study of Population, Health and Nutrition in Zimbabwe' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1990).
13. See P. Richards, 'Agriculture as Performance', in R. Chambers, A. Pacey and L.-A. Thrupp (eds), Farmer First: Innovation and Agricultural Research (Intermediate Technology Publications, London, 1989), pp. 39-43.
14. See I. Scoones, 'The Dynamics of Soil Fertility Change: Historical Perspectives on Environmental Transformation from Zimbabwe', Geographical Journal, 163 (1997), pp. 161-169, for a discussion on the conceptual and methodological issues surrounding environmental transformation and the history of soil management in this area.
15. This process of interaction between people and environment parallels a structuration process whereby environments (as 'structures') cannot be seen as being independent of people's actions, as they are being constantly created and changed through practice, and, in turn, environments shape and condition people's action; see A. Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1984). See also M. Leach, R. Mearns and I. Scoones, 'Environmental Entitlements: Institutional Dimensions of Environmental Change', IDS Discussion Paper, 359 (IDS, Sussex, 1997).
16. This process of interaction between people and environment parallels a structuration process whereby environments (as 'structures') cannot be seen as being independent of people's actions, as they are being constantly created and changed through practice, and, in turn, environments shape and condition people's action; see A. Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1984). See also M. Leach, R. Mearns and I. Scoones, 'Environmental Entitlements: Institutional Dimensions of Environmental Change', IDS Discussion Paper, 359 (IDS, Sussex, 1997).
17. See Leach et al., 'Environmental Entitlements', for an exploration of institutional issues relating to environmental change.
18. See, for example, Giddens, The Constitution of Society, for his exploration of the concept of agency.
19. For a discussion on 'styles' of farming, see, for example, J. van der Ploeg, 'Knowledge Systems, Metaphor and the Interface: The Case of Potatoes in the Peruvian Highlands', in N. Long (ed), Encounters at the Interface: A Perspective on Social Discontinuities in Rural Development (Wageningse Sociologische Studies, Wageningen Agricultural University, 1989), pp. 145-163.
20. For a discussion of the Ndebele impact in the Shona-speaking hinterland, see J. Cobbing, 'The Ndebele under the Khumalos, 1820-1896' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Lancaster, 1976).
21. J. Rattray, R. Cormack and R. Staples, 'The Vlei Areas of Southern Rhodesia and their Uses', Rhodesia Agriculture Journal, 44 (1957), p. 20. See also J. Whitlow, 'Dambos in Zimbabwe: A Review', Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, Supp, 52 (1985), pp. 63-86 and M. Bell et al, The Use of Dambos in Rural Development: with Reference to Zimbabwe (Dambo Research Unit, University of Loughborough/University of Zimbabwe, Final Report of ODA Project R3869, 1987) for good reviews of dambos.
22. J. Rattray, R. Cormack and R. Staples, 'The Vlei Areas of Southern Rhodesia and their Uses', Rhodesia Agriculture Journal, 44 (1957), p. 20. See also J. Whitlow, 'Dambos in Zimbabwe: A Review', Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, Supp, 52 (1985), pp. 63-86 and M. Bell et al, The Use of Dambos in Rural Development: with Reference to Zimbabwe (Dambo Research Unit, University of Loughborough/University of Zimbabwe, Final Report of ODA Project R3869, 1987) for good reviews of dambos.
23. J. Rattray, R. Cormack and R. Staples, 'The Vlei Areas of Southern Rhodesia and their Uses', Rhodesia Agriculture Journal, 44 (1957), p. 20. See also J. Whitlow, 'Dambos in Zimbabwe: A Review', Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, Supp, 52 (1985), pp. 63-86 and M. Bell et al, The Use of Dambos in Rural Development: with Reference to Zimbabwe (Dambo Research Unit, University of Loughborough/University of Zimbabwe, Final Report of ODA Project R3869, 1987) for good reviews of dambos.
24. See the appendices to K. Wilson, 'Ecological Dynamics and Human Welfare'.
25. Ibid.
26. The idea of dambos as key resources is explored in I. Scoones, 'Wetlands in Drylands: Key Resources for Agricultural and Pastoral Production', Ambio, 20 (1991), pp. 366-371. See also I. Scoones and B. Cousins, 'Struggle for Control over Wetland Resources in Zimbabwe', Society and Natural Resources, 7 (1994), pp. 579-594, and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation, Conservation and Household Strategies in Zimbabwe', Africa, 61 (1991), pp. 202-221.
27. The idea of dambos as key resources is explored in I. Scoones, 'Wetlands in Drylands: Key Resources for Agricultural and Pastoral Production', Ambio, 20 (1991), pp. 366-371. See also I. Scoones and B. Cousins, 'Struggle for Control over Wetland Resources in Zimbabwe', Society and Natural Resources, 7 (1994), pp. 579-594, and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation, Conservation and Household Strategies in Zimbabwe', Africa, 61 (1991), pp. 202-221.
28. The idea of dambos as key resources is explored in I. Scoones, 'Wetlands in Drylands: Key Resources for Agricultural and Pastoral Production', Ambio, 20 (1991), pp. 366-371. See also I. Scoones and B. Cousins, 'Struggle for Control over Wetland Resources in Zimbabwe', Society and Natural Resources, 7 (1994), pp. 579-594, and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation, Conservation and Household Strategies in Zimbabwe', Africa, 61 (1991), pp. 202-221.
29. Data is derived from annual District Commissioner reports for Chivi and is reported in Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, p. 27.
30. At the turn of the century the estimated population in Chivi district was only 15,000; by 1930 the population had grown to around 28,500. Censuses in 1962, 1969 and 1982 showed district populations at 57,220, 80,580 and 103,656 respectively. The 1992 population census showed the district population (now including Mashava) to be 157,428 with a growth rate of two per cent and a density of 44.5 people per square kilometre.
31. The impact of state intervention in this period is explored in M. Drinkwater, The State and Agrarian Change in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (MacMillan, London, 1991). Other commentators include M. Bulman, The Native Land Husbandry Act of Southern Rhodesia: A Failure in Land Reform (Tribal Areas of Rhodesia Research Foundation, Salisbury, 1973) and R. Palmer, 'The Agricultural History of Rhodesia', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Heinemann, London, 1977).
32. The impact of state intervention in this period is explored in M. Drinkwater, The State and Agrarian Change in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (MacMillan, London, 1991). Other commentators include M. Bulman, The Native Land Husbandry Act of Southern Rhodesia: A Failure in Land Reform (Tribal Areas of Rhodesia Research Foundation, Salisbury, 1973) and R. Palmer, 'The Agricultural History of Rhodesia', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Heinemann, London, 1977).
33. The impact of state intervention in this period is explored in M. Drinkwater, The State and Agrarian Change in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (MacMillan, London, 1991). Other commentators include M. Bulman, The Native Land Husbandry Act of Southern Rhodesia: A Failure in Land Reform (Tribal Areas of Rhodesia Research Foundation, Salisbury, 1973) and R. Palmer, 'The Agricultural History of Rhodesia', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons (eds), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Heinemann, London, 1977).
34. The first two extension workers were posted to Chivi by Alvord in 1927 to work with small groups of demonstrator farmers. From this model there evolved the Master Farmer training scheme system which has dominated the extension service since.
35. Alvord's vision is spelt out clearly in a number of publications including E. Alvord, 'The Great Hunger. The Story of how an African Chieftaincy Improved its Farming Methods under European Guidance', Native Affairs Department Annual, 6 (1928), pp. 35-43, and E. Alvord, 'Agricultural Life of Rhodesian Natives', Native Affairs Department Annual, 7 (1929), pp. 9-16. Important commentaries on colonial conservation policy in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in southern Africa can be found in W. Beinart (ed), 'The Politics of Conservation in Southern Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989).
36. Alvord's vision is spelt out clearly in a number of publications including E. Alvord, 'The Great Hunger. The Story of how an African Chieftaincy Improved its Farming Methods under European Guidance', Native Affairs Department Annual, 6 (1928), pp. 35-43, and E. Alvord, 'Agricultural Life of Rhodesian Natives', Native Affairs Department Annual, 7 (1929), pp. 9-16. Important commentaries on colonial conservation policy in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in southern Africa can be found in W. Beinart (ed), 'The Politics of Conservation in Southern Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989).
37. Alvord's vision is spelt out clearly in a number of publications including E. Alvord, 'The Great Hunger. The Story of how an African Chieftaincy Improved its Farming Methods under European Guidance', Native Affairs Department Annual, 6 (1928), pp. 35-43, and E. Alvord, 'Agricultural Life of Rhodesian Natives', Native Affairs Department Annual, 7 (1929), pp. 9-16. Important commentaries on colonial conservation policy in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in southern Africa can be found in W. Beinart (ed), 'The Politics of Conservation in Southern Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989).
38. K. Wilson, 'Trees in Fields in Southern Zimbabwe', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989), pp. 369-383.
39. See Bell et al., The Use of Dambos in Rural Development which challenges the environmental and hydrological bases for the prohibition; K. Wilson, 'Aspects of the History of Vlei Cultivation in Southern Zimbabwe', Proceedings of the Workshop on Use of Dambos in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (University of Zimbabwe, Harare, 1986) criticizes the policy from a political and historical perspective; and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation', show that cultivation on dambos is critical for sustaining rural livelihoods.
40. See Bell et al., The Use of Dambos in Rural Development which challenges the environmental and hydrological bases for the prohibition; K. Wilson, 'Aspects of the History of Vlei Cultivation in Southern Zimbabwe', Proceedings of the Workshop on Use of Dambos in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (University of Zimbabwe, Harare, 1986) criticizes the policy from a political and historical perspective; and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation', show that cultivation on dambos is critical for sustaining rural livelihoods.
41. See Bell et al., The Use of Dambos in Rural Development which challenges the environmental and hydrological bases for the prohibition; K. Wilson, 'Aspects of the History of Vlei Cultivation in Southern Zimbabwe', Proceedings of the Workshop on Use of Dambos in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas (University of Zimbabwe, Harare, 1986) criticizes the policy from a political and historical perspective; and M. Bell and P. Hotchkiss, 'Garden Cultivation', show that cultivation on dambos is critical for sustaining rural livelihoods.
42. As former Crown Land, Mazvihwa was subject to centralisation later than many parts of Chivi. However the broad pattern of land use change was similar.
43. See for example K. Wilson, 'Indigenous Conservation in Zimbabwe: Soil Erosion, Land-Use Planning and Rural Life', African Studies Association conference paper (Cambridge, 1988); Kate Showers and Gwendolyn Malahleha, 'Oral Evidence in Historical Environmental Impact Assessment: Soil Conservation in Lesotho in the 1930s and 1940s', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 2 (1992), pp. 276-296.
44. See for example K. Wilson, 'Indigenous Conservation in Zimbabwe: Soil Erosion, Land-Use Planning and Rural Life', African Studies Association conference paper (Cambridge, 1988); Kate Showers and Gwendolyn Malahleha, 'Oral Evidence in Historical Environmental Impact Assessment: Soil Conservation in Lesotho in the 1930s and 1940s', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 2 (1992), pp. 276-296.
45. See Wilson, 'Trees in Fields'.
46. This pattern was a major concern for new settler farmers in the first decades of the century. Trials were set up in the Salisbury research station (now Harare) and in Matopos (near Bulawayo) to look at possible ways of increasing the fertility of soils through a combination of rotation, organic matter management and fertiliser application as farmers' experience of continuously cultivating maize, confirmed by long-term trials, was that following land clearance yields quickly declined to a low level. See Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, Annual Reports of Experiments, 1913-1935.
47. The changing availability of wheeled transport is recorded in District Commissioners' annual reports. Details can be found in Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, p. 28.
48. M. Drinkwater, The State and Agrarian Change (Macmillan, London, 1991) notes this phenomenon in nearby communal areas.
49. Colin Stoneman, personal communication and Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 56, 240. Details on wage rate changes in the latter publication are derived from Central Statistical Office sources and Native Department records. Wage rate data are divided between Africans and the total population up to 1977; thereafter the racial disaggregation was abandoned. Wage levels recorded are the national average for surveyed formal employment. The low-income urban African consumer price index is used to calculate a real wage level comparable between years.
50. Colin Stoneman, personal communication and Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 56, 240. Details on wage rate changes in the latter publication are derived from Central Statistical Office sources and Native Department records. Wage rate data are divided between Africans and the total population up to 1977; thereafter the racial disaggregation was abandoned. Wage levels recorded are the national average for surveyed formal employment. The low-income urban African consumer price index is used to calculate a real wage level comparable between years.
51. Details of input use (including both hybrid maize seed and inorganic fertiliser) for the 1980s can be found in D. Rohrbach, The Growth of Smallholder Maize Production in Zimbabwe: Causes and Implications for Food Security (PhD thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1988), and for the 1990s in Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, p. 28.
52. Details of input use (including both hybrid maize seed and inorganic fertiliser) for the 1980s can be found in D. Rohrbach, The Growth of Smallholder Maize Production in Zimbabwe: Causes and Implications for Food Security (PhD thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1988), and for the 1990s in Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, p. 28.
53. J. Jackson and P. Collier, 'Incomes, Poverty and Food Security in the Communal Lands of Zimbabwe' (Occasional Paper, Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe, 1988) gives the national picture in the mid-1980s, while Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, provide details for Chivi up to the 1990s.
54. J. Jackson and P. Collier, 'Incomes, Poverty and Food Security in the Communal Lands of Zimbabwe' (Occasional Paper, Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe, 1988) gives the national picture in the mid-1980s, while Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, provide details for Chivi up to the 1990s.
55. Government subsidies applied to seeds and fertilisers as well as marketing transport through pan-seasonal and pan-territorial pricing systems operated by the marketing boards. See various contributions to M. Rukuni and C. Eicher (eds), Zimbabwe's Agricultural Revolution (University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1994) for a discussion of policy issues in this period.
56. C. Chibudu, personal communication, from ongoing work by the Farming Systems Research Unit, Department of Research and Specialist Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Harare.
57. E. Whingwiri, J. Natarajan, G. Makombe, D. Mataruka, A. Low, T. Cameron and P. Kunjeke, 'The Package for Higher Maize Yields in the Semi-Arid Zones: Is it Economical?', in Cropping in the Semi-Arid Areas of Zimbabwe (Agritex and GTZ, Harare, 1987), pp. 384-396, provide a simple economic analysis for fertiliser use showing how standard packages make little economic sense for the dry areas.
58. See M. Drinkwater, 'Technical Development and Peasant Impoverishment: Land Use Policy in Zimbabwe's Midlands Province', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989), pp. 287-305.
59. Various pieces of legislation restrict stream bank cultivation. These include the Water Act of 1928, the Communal Area Forest Product Act of 1928 and the Natural Resources Act of 1942. Although various amendments have been added since and new regulations applied, the basic law prohibits cultivation within 30 metres of a stream and on wetlands (which effectively includes all dambo land). Further discussion of this issue is contained in Bell et al., The Use of Dambos in Rural Development, pp. 8-11.
60. However, rotation of inputs over 3-4 year cycles are typical, so, over time, larger areas do receive some inputs.
61. Details on fertilisation practices can be found in Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 115-20.
62. Data on livestock deaths are derived from household surveys carried out during this period. See Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 208-10 for details.
63. Real wage rates are derived from CSO figures and reported in detail in Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 56, 240.
64. Price changes of fertilisers are derived from data from the major fertiliser companies. Details are contained in Scoones et al., Hazards and Opportunities, p. 118.
65. Maize remains the favoured crop and without alternative open-pollinated varieties to choose from, farmers do still purchase maize seed, although in increasingly smaller quantities. This seed is now almost exclusively planted in the home fields and increasingly in gardens, and is nurtured with great care.
66. See, for example, Institute of Hydrology, Romwe Catchment Study, Effect of Land Management on Groundwater Recharge and Implications for Small-scale Irrigation using Groundwater (Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, 1995). On the significance of dambo cultivation for household food security in rural areas see Bell and Hotchkiss, 'Garden cultivation'.
67. See, for example, Institute of Hydrology, Romwe Catchment Study, Effect of Land Management on Groundwater Recharge and Implications for Small-scale Irrigation using Groundwater (Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, 1995). On the significance of dambo cultivation for household food security in rural areas see Bell and Hotchkiss, 'Garden cultivation'.
68. See the discussion in Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities, pp. 243-246.
69. See FSRU, 'Nutrient Cycling and Existing Farmer Practices in Chivi, Southern Zimbabwe', in Workshop on Nutrient Cycling and Soil Fertility Management, Soddo, Ethiopia (FARM-Africa/IIED, Awassa/London, 1995) for a further discussion of such techniques.
70. This was particularly extreme during the Maize Control era in the 1930s, but was evident through much of the colonial era.
71. See T. Takavarasha, 'Trade, Price and Market Reform: Current Status, Proposals and Constraints', Food Policy, 18 (1993), pp. 288-293.
72. See C. Benson and E. Clay, 'The Impact of Drought on Sub-Saharan African Economies: A Preliminary Examination', OD1 Working Paper, 77 (Overseas Development Institute, London, 1994).
73. These changes are documented in greater detail in Scoones et al, Hazards and Opportunities.
74. See I. Scoones and C. Toulmin, 'Nutrient Budgets and Balances: What Use for Policy?', Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment (submitted, 1997) and Scoones, 'The Dynamics of Soil Fertility Change' for a further discussion of some of these methodological themes.
75. See I. Scoones and C. Toulmin, 'Nutrient Budgets and Balances: What Use for Policy?', Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment (submitted, 1997) and Scoones, 'The Dynamics of Soil Fertility Change' for a further discussion of some of these methodological themes.