The precautionary principle as a norm of customary international law

Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 221-240

  McIntyre, Owen ^a   Mosedale, Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; INTERNATIONAL LAW; PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE;

EID: 0031419388     PISSN: 09528873     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jel/9.2.221     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. For a taxonomic scheme for classifying the different kinds of scientific uncertainty, see V.R. Walker, 'The Siren Songs of Science: Toward a Taxonomy of Scientific Uncertainty for Decision-Makers' (1991) 23 Connecticut Law Review 567. See also, R.M. Peterman and M. M'Gonigle, 'Statistical Power Analysis and the Precautionary Principle' (1992) 24 Marine Pollution Bulletin 231-4.
2. For a taxonomic scheme for classifying the different kinds of scientific uncertainty, see V.R. Walker, 'The Siren Songs of Science: Toward a Taxonomy of Scientific Uncertainty for Decision-Makers' (1991) 23 Connecticut Law Review 567. See also, R.M. Peterman and M. M'Gonigle, 'Statistical Power Analysis and the Precautionary Principle' (1992) 24 Marine Pollution Bulletin 231-4.
3. See, S. Boehmer-Christiansen, 'The Precautionary principle in Germany - Enabling Government' in T. O'Riordan and J. Cameron (eds), Interpreting the Precautionary Principle, (Cameron May: London, 1994) 31-60; K. von Moltke, 'The Vorsorgeprinzip in West German Environmental Policy', Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 12th Report, Best Practicable Environmental Option, Appendix 3, (HMSO: London, 1988).
4. See, S. Boehmer-Christiansen, 'The Precautionary principle in Germany - Enabling Government' in T. O'Riordan and J. Cameron (eds), Interpreting the Precautionary Principle, (Cameron May: London, 1994) 31-60; K. von Moltke, 'The Vorsorgeprinzip in West German Environmental Policy', Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 12th Report, Best Practicable Environmental Option, Appendix 3, (HMSO: London, 1988).
5. See, the 1987 London Ministerial Declaration, infra, n 19.
6. Also referred to as the 'permissive principle', see P.J. Taylor, The Precautionary Principle-Implications for the Paris Commission (Greenpeace: London, 1988), who also criticises the basic ideas behind what he describes as the 'dump-monitor-act' logic of the assimilative capacity model. See also, A.R.D. Stebbing, 'Environmental Capacity and the Precautionary Principle', (1992) 24 Marine Pollution Bulletin 287-95.
7. Also referred to as the 'permissive principle', see P.J. Taylor, The Precautionary Principle-Implications for the Paris Commission (Greenpeace: London, 1988), who also criticises the basic ideas behind what he describes as the 'dump-monitor-act' logic of the assimilative capacity model. See also, A.R.D. Stebbing, 'Environmental Capacity and the Precautionary Principle', (1992) 24 Marine Pollution Bulletin 287-95.
8. The capacity of relevant environmental media to tolerate disturbance due to anthropogenic inputs without unacceptable harm.
9. E. Hey, 'The Precautionary Concept in Environmental Policy and Law: Institutionalizing Caution' (1992) 4 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 303-18 at 308.
10. D. Freestone, 'The Road to Rio: International Environmental Law After the Earth Summit', (1994) 6 Journal of Environmental Law 193 at 211. See also, H. Hohmann, Precautionary Legal Duties and Principles of Modern International Environmental Law, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1994) at 1-5.
11. D. Freestone, 'The Road to Rio: International Environmental Law After the Earth Summit', (1994) 6 Journal of Environmental Law 193 at 211. See also, H. Hohmann, Precautionary Legal Duties and Principles of Modern International Environmental Law, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1994) at 1-5.
12. Freestone, ibid.
13. Hey, supra, n 6 at 307.
14. Ibid at 308.
15. See Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 4-5; R.C. Earll, 'Common Sense and the Precautionary Principle - An Environmentalist's Perspective' (1992) 24 Marine Pollution Bulletin 182-6 at 183.
16. For example, the precautionary action required for the protection of the ozone layer by the 1985 Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone Layer, 26 ILM (1987) 1529, and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 26 ILM (1987) 1550.
17. For example, the precautionary action required for the protection of the ozone layer by the 1985 Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone Layer, 26 ILM (1987) 1529, and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 26 ILM (1987) 1550.
18. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
19. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
20. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
21. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
22. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
23. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
24. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
25. See, inter alia, P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (Vol 1: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation) (Manchester University Press, 1995) at 212-13, D. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209-15; H. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 341-5; D. Freestone, 'The Precautionary Principle', in R. Churchill and D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change, (Graham & Trotman: London, 1991) 21 at 23-30; J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, 'The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law', in D. Freestone and E. Hey, (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1996) 29-52 at 36-52; J. Cameron and W. Wade-Gery, 'Addressing Uncertainty: Law, Policy and the Development of the Precautionary Principle', in B. Dente (ed), Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments, (Kluwer: The Hague, 1995) 95-142 at 110-16. More sceptical commentators include L. Gundling, 'The Status in International Law of the Principle of Precautionary Action', in D. Freestone and T. IJlstra (eds), The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Cooperation (Special Issue of the IJECL)(Graham & Trotman: London, 1990) 23-30; G. Handl, 'Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law', 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1990) at 23; A. Nollkaemper, 'The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law: What's New Under the Sun?', 22 Marine Pollution Bulletin (1991) 107-10 at 108; D. Bodansky, 'Remarks on New Developments in International Environmental Law', (1991) Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (85th Annual Meeting) 413-17 at 417.
26. Three progressively more stringent formulations of the conceptual core of the precautionary principle are provided by Cameron and Wade-Gery, supra, n 13 at too.
27. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 335.
28. Hohmann, ibid. On sources of international environmental law see J. Cameron and J. Abouchar, supra, n 13 at 32-6.
29. Ibid at 336.
30. Ibid at 337.
31. Article VII. See D. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 23.
32. Article XVI.1. See Freestone, ibid.
33. Ibid at 25.
34. PARCOM Recommendation 89/1 (1989).
35. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 24.
36. Ibid.
37. PARCOM Recommendation 90/1 on the Definition of the Best Available Technology for Secondary Iron and Steel Plants. See A. Nollkaemper, supra, n 13 at 109.
38. 1992 Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic; 32 ILM (1993) 1068.
39. Art 2(2)(a).
40. Nollkaemper, supra, n 13 at 110.
41. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 25.
42. Decision 89/1 on the reduction and cessation of dumping industrial wastes at sea, reproduced in Freestone and IJlstra, supra, 1113 at 119.
43. Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, Art 3(2). Reproduced as an appendix to P. Ehlers, 'The Helsinki Convention 1992: Improving the Baltic Sea Environment' (1993) 8 The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 191 at 215-43.
44. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 27.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. UNEP Governing Council Decision 15/27 (1989) on the Precautionary Approach to Marine Pollution. See P. Sands, supra, n 13 at 210.
48. UN Doc A/45/721, 19 November 1990, 20, para 6. See Freestone, supra, n 7 at 210.
49. Doc A/CONF 151/PCAVG II/L I. See Nollkaemper, supra, n 13 at 109.
50. 1985 Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer; 26 ILM (1987) 1529.
51. 1987 Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; 26 ILM (1987) 154.
52. 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; 31 ILM (1992) 849, Art 3(3).
53. Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of io December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. See G. Rose and G. Paleokrassis, 'Compliance with International Environmental Obligations: A Case Study of the International Whaling Commission' in J. Cameron, J. Werksman and P. Roderick (eds), Improving Compliance with International Environmental Law (Earthscan Publications: London, 1996) at 328. See generally, concerning the application of the precautionary principle to fisheries management, J. Cooke and M. Earle, 'Towards a Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management' (1993) 2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law No 3, 252-9; S.M. Garcia, 'The Precautionary Principle: Its Implications in Capture Fisheries Management' (1994) 22 Ocean and Coastal Management 99-125; G.J. Hewison, 'The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: An Environmental Perspective' (1996) 11 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law No 3, 301-32.
54. Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of io December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. See G. Rose and G. Paleokrassis, 'Compliance with International Environmental Obligations: A Case Study of the International Whaling Commission' in J. Cameron, J. Werksman and P. Roderick (eds), Improving Compliance with International Environmental Law (Earthscan Publications: London, 1996) at 328. See generally, concerning the application of the precautionary principle to fisheries management, J. Cooke and M. Earle, 'Towards a Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management' (1993) 2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law No 3, 252-9; S.M. Garcia, 'The Precautionary Principle: Its Implications in Capture Fisheries Management' (1994) 22 Ocean and Coastal Management 99-125; G.J. Hewison, 'The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: An Environmental Perspective' (1996) 11 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law No 3, 301-32.
55. Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of io December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. See G. Rose and G. Paleokrassis, 'Compliance with International Environmental Obligations: A Case Study of the International Whaling Commission' in J. Cameron, J. Werksman and P. Roderick (eds), Improving Compliance with International Environmental Law (Earthscan Publications: London, 1996) at 328. See generally, concerning the application of the precautionary principle to fisheries management, J. Cooke and M. Earle, 'Towards a Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management' (1993) 2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law No 3, 252-9; S.M. Garcia, 'The Precautionary Principle: Its Implications in Capture Fisheries Management' (1994) 22 Ocean and Coastal Management 99-125; G.J. Hewison, 'The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: An Environmental Perspective' (1996) 11 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law No 3, 301-32.
56. Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of io December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. See G. Rose and G. Paleokrassis, 'Compliance with International Environmental Obligations: A Case Study of the International Whaling Commission' in J. Cameron, J. Werksman and P. Roderick (eds), Improving Compliance with International Environmental Law (Earthscan Publications: London, 1996) at 328. See generally, concerning the application of the precautionary principle to fisheries management, J. Cooke and M. Earle, 'Towards a Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management' (1993) 2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law No 3, 252-9; S.M. Garcia, 'The Precautionary Principle: Its Implications in Capture Fisheries Management' (1994) 22 Ocean and Coastal Management 99-125; G.J. Hewison, 'The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: An Environmental Perspective' (1996) 11 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law No 3, 301-32.
57. 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; 993 UNTS 243. A precautionary approach, it may be argued, has always been implicit in the Convention, particularly in relation to Appendix II which aims to regulate trade in species that may become endangered before they become so (see Article II(2)(a)), and in the 1976 'Berne Criteria' for listing species in the appendices (Resolution Conf 1.1: 'Criteria for the addition of species and other taxa to Appendices I and II and for the transfer of species and other taxa between Appendix II and Appendix I; and Resolution Conf 1.2: Criteria for the deletion of species and other taxa from Appendices I and II (both now repealed)).
58. Resolution of the Conference of the Parties: Criteria for Amendment of Appendices I and II, agreed at the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Fort Lauderdale (US), 7-18 November 1994.
59. 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity; 31 ILM (1992) 822.
60. 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling; 161 UNTS 72.
61. P. Birnie and A. Boyle, International Law and the Environment (Clarendon: Oxford, 1992) at 455.
62. IWC [1994] 'Annex H: The Revised Management Procedure [RMP] for Baleen Whales' Rep Int Whal Commn 44, 145-52, see also e.g., G.P. Donavan, 'The International Whaling Convention and the Revised Management Procedure' paper presented at Conference on Responsible Wildlife Resource Management held by European Parliament, Brussels, 29-30 March 1993, and reprinted in High North Alliance (1995) 'Additional Essays on Whales and Man' High North Alliance, Reine i Lofoten.
63. IWC [1994] 'Annex H: The Revised Management Procedure [RMP] for Baleen Whales' Rep Int Whal Commn 44, 145-52, see also e.g., G.P. Donavan, 'The International Whaling Convention and the Revised Management Procedure' paper presented at Conference on Responsible Wildlife Resource Management held by European Parliament, Brussels, 29-30 March 1993, and reprinted in High North Alliance (1995) 'Additional Essays on Whales and Man' High North Alliance, Reine i Lofoten.
64. IWC [1994] 'Annex H: The Revised Management Procedure [RMP] for Baleen Whales' Rep Int Whal Commn 44, 145-52, see also e.g., G.P. Donavan, 'The International Whaling Convention and the Revised Management Procedure' paper presented at Conference on Responsible Wildlife Resource Management held by European Parliament, Brussels, 29-30 March 1993, and reprinted in High North Alliance (1995) 'Additional Essays on Whales and Man' High North Alliance, Reine i Lofoten.
65. 1991 Convention on the Ban of Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa; 30 ILM (1991) 775.
66. Decision SS 11/4 B (1990), 20 EPL (1990) at 157.
67. See Birnie and Boyle, supra, n 47.
68. UN General Assembly. Official Records: Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No 25 (A/45/25). See Freestone, supra, n 13 at 28.
69. 1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses an International Lakes, 31 ILM (1992) 1312.
70. Article 2(5)(a).
71. Bergen Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Development in the ECE Region, in Action for a Common Future, Report on the Regional ,Conference at Ministerial Level on the Follow-up to the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development in the ECE Region (Norway Ministry of Environment, 1990). Reprinted in 20 Environmental Polity & Law 100 (1990).
72. Bergen Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Development in the ECE Region, in Action for a Common Future, Report on the Regional ,Conference at Ministerial Level on the Follow-up to the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development in the ECE Region (Norway Ministry of Environment, 1990). Reprinted in 20 Environmental Polity & Law 100 (1990).
73. Para 7, Bergen Declaration.
74. Reproduced in 20 EPL (1990) at 103.
75. Report of the UN ESCAP Ministerial Conference on the Environment, Bangkok, 15-16 October 1990, Appendix 2 at 8-10. See D. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 29-30.
76. Freestone, supra, n 7 at 209.
77. Article 130R, S & T, which first outlined an environmental policy for the Community, had been added to the original Treaty of Rome by means the 1986 Single European Act, 25 ILM (1986) 503.
78. See R v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry ex parte Duddridge. Reported in (1995) 7 Journal of Environmental Law 224-38; 1 Environmental Judicial Review Bulletin Issue 2, February 1995, 18-22.
79. See R v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry ex parte Duddridge. Reported in (1995) 7 Journal of Environmental Law 224-38; 1 Environmental Judicial Review Bulletin Issue 2, February 1995, 18-22.
80. Case C-379/92, at para 57.
81. (OJ C91 27.3.96). See Nigel Haigh et al, 'Current Survey', 4 Env Liability (1996), CS55.
82. 'Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost'.
83. Haigh et al, supra, n 62.
84. Directive 90/219, on the contained use of genetically modified micro-organisms, OJ L117/1 (1990); Directive 90/220, on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms, OJ L117/15 (1990). See Cameron and Wade-Gery, supra, n 13 at 97.
85. Infra, n 69 at 344.
86. The principle may be argued to have evolved as part of German environmental law, quite separately from or prior to its emergence in international law; see e.g., S. Boehmer-Christiansen, supra, n 2, 31-60; and, Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 4-5. For a survey of examples of precautionary concepts in State environmental law and policy, see Cameron and Abouchar, supra, n 13 at 38-40. Regarding States with a legal system developed from the common law, perhaps the clearest example of the incorporation of the principle into domestic policy making, is in the case of Australia, where it is declared it should inform environmental policy making and programme implementation, under section 3(5)(1), of the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment, signed 1 May 1992, between federal, state and local government. The Agreement in particular states that the principle requires evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable, serious or irreversible environmental damage, and assessment of the risk-weighted consequences of various options.
87. Application of the Republic of Hungary v The Czech and Slovak Republic on the Diversion of the Danube River reproduced in part in P. Sands, R. Tarasofsky and M. Weiss (eds), Principles of International Environment Law, Volume IIA: Documents in International Environmental Law, (MUP: Manchester, 1994) at 693-8.
88. Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the Court's judgment of 20 December 1974 in Nuclear Tests [New Zealand v France], Order 22 IX 95, ICJ Rep [1995] 288. See also M.C.R. Craven, 'New Zealand's Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the Courts judgment of 20 December 1974 in Nuclear Tests [New Zealand v. France], Order of 22 September 1995' 45 ICLQ [1996] 725-34, for a summary of the case.
89. Para 5, ibid at 290. See also paras 34 and 35 ibid.
90. Dissenting opinion Koroma, idem at 378.
91. Dissenting opinion Palmer, idem at 412.
92. Dissenting opinion Weeramantry, idem at 342-4.
93. Ibid at 345.
94. Nuclear Tests [New Zealand v. France] [Interim Protection] ICJ Rep [1973] 135 at 139.
95. Supra, n 69 at 348.
96. Ibid at 357.
97. In the Matter of the Public Inquiry concerning an Appeal by the United Kingdom NIREX Ltd concerning the Construction of a Rock Characterisation Facility at Longlands Farm, Gosforth, Cumbria: Statement on Behalf of the Minister of State at the Department of Transport, Energy and Communications, Dublin, Ireland, made by Professor Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QC; 12 January 1996,['the Irish statement'] paras 96-100.
98. Ibid, paragraph 6 of the Conclusions.
99. Report on Channel 4 News, 7.00 pm, 10 June 1996.
100. Lac Lanoux Arbitration (Spain v France) 16 November 1957, 24 ILR [1957] 101; [1959] 53 AJIL 156. See Sands et al, Vol IIA, supra, n 68 at 615.
101. Achieved by amending the Schedule under Article V of the Convention so that 'catch limits for the killing for commercial purposes of whales from all stocks . . . thereafter shall be zero'. See Freestone, supra, n 7 at 213.
102. Freestone, supra, n 13 at 30.
103. Hohmann, supra, n 7 at 335-6.
104. Supra, n 13 at 33.
105. Ibid at 35-6. See I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 4th edn, (Clarendon: Oxford, 1990) at 5.
106. Supra, n 13 at 212-13.
107. See Gundling (1990), Handle (1990), Nollkaemper (1991) and Bodansky (1991), supra, n 13. However, Gundling, reviewing H. Hohmann, 'Precautionary Legal Duties . . .', in 1994 appears to have maintained his scepticism, see Handl (ed) 4 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1994) 642-5 at 644.
108. See Gundling (1990), Handle (1990), Nollkaemper (1991) and Bodansky (1991), supra, n 13. However, Gundling, reviewing H. Hohmann, 'Precautionary Legal Duties . . .', in 1994 appears to have maintained his scepticism, see Handl (ed) 4 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1994) 642-5 at 644.
109. For example, Nollkaemper perceives the principle as having developed from the so-called 'no substantial harm principle', supra, n 13 at 108, while Hohmann sees it as ancillary to the goal of 'intergeherational equity', supra, n 7 at 4-5, 11.
110. For example, in relation to nature conservation treaties, see the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement, supra, n 41, and the 1994 (CITES) Fort Lauderdale Resolution, supra, n 43.
111. See, for example, Cameron and Wade-Gery, supra, n 13 at 100.
112. Hey, supra, n 6 at 311.
113. For example, the 1991 Bamako Convention, Art 4(3)(f) supra, n 48.
114. For example, Article 17 of the EC Waste Water Treatment Directive requires that Member States establish a programme for implementing the Directive and report thereon to the Commission which subsequently reviews and assesses the information submitted and publishes its findings; Directive of the European Community on Municipal Waste Water Treatment, 21 May 1991, OJ (L 135) 40. See Hey, supra, n 6 at 315.
115. Article 2(3)(b)(ii) refers to the application of 'best available techniques and best environmental practice as so defined, including, where appropriate, clean technology'. Criteria for defining both the former terms being set out in Appendix I, supra, n 26.
116. Article 23(3) and Annex II refer to 'best available technology', supra, n 31.
117. Article 3(1) refers to 'low- and non-waste technology', 'best available technology' and 'best environmental practices', supra, n 52.
118. Article 6 refers to 'best available technology which is economically feasible and low- and non-waste technology', 18 ILM 1442 (1979), while Article 2(2)(a) of the 1988 Nitrogen Oxides Protocol refers to 'best available technology which is economically feasible', UN Doc ECE/EB AIR/21, as does Article 3(3) of the 1991 Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol, UN Doc ECE/EB AIR/30.
119. Supra, n 48.
120. Article 4(1)(c), supra, n 40.
121. See, for example, UNGA Res 46/215 on Large-Scale Pelagic Drift-Net Fishing and its Impact on the Living Marine Resources of the World's Oceans and Seas, 20 December 1991, (UN Doc A/46/645/Add 6), Sands et al, Vol IIA, supra, n 68 at 991. Whilst not referring specifically to the precautionary principle, this resolution appears essentially to be a precautionary measure, as it might be argued is Article 5(e), 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement, supra, n 41.
122. Supra, n 26.
123. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
124. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
125. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
126. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
127. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
128. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
129. See, for example, Article 6, Nordic Environmental Protection Convention, 13 ILM (1974) at 511; Article 14(1), ASEAN Agreement on Nature and Natural Resources 1985, (not yet in force), Sands et al, Vol IIA, 958; UN ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 1991 ('the Espoo Convention')(not in force), 30 ILM [1991] 802, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1332; Art 4(4) and Annex III, UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1992, (not in force) 31 ILM (1992) 330, Sands et al., Vol. IIB 1351; and, Art 3(1)(h), UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992, (not in force) Sands et al, Vol IIA 673.
130. See Art XV(2)(d), Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980, 19 ILM (1980) 841,
131. Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1646;
132. Art 206, UNCLOS 1982, 21 ILM (1982) 1261;
133. Sands et al, Vol IIA, 352;
134. Arts 2(1)(a) and 4, Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activity 1988, not in force, 27 ILM (1988) 859,
135. Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1662;
136. and, Art 8 and Annex 1, Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991, not in force, Sands et al, Vol IIB, 1592.
137. Art 4(1)(f), 31 ILM [1992] 849, Sands et al, Vol IIA, 248.
138. Art 4(1)(f), 31 ILM [1992] 849, Sands et al, Vol IIA, 248.
139. Art 14(1)(a), 31 ILM [1992] 822,
140. Sands et al, Vol IIA, 845.
141. Supra, n 69.
142. Principle 17 states: 'Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.'
143. For example, under the IWC Revised Management Procedure, supra, n 47, and Art 6(2) & (3)(b), Fish Stock Agreement 1995, supra, n 41, quota levels should vary according to the reliability of available data, and states wishing to utilise the resource must therefore carry out ongoing scientific monitoring and research in order to maintain or increase the size of their quotas.
144. For example, the final recital in the Preamble to the 1994 Fort Lauderdale Resolution listing criteria, supra, n 43, and implicit in the previous Berne Criteria: Resolution Conf 1.1 Criteria for the addition of species and other taxa to Appendices I and II and for the transfer of species and other taxa between Appendix II and Appendix I and 1.2 Criteria for the deletion of species and other taxa from Appendices I and II (both now repealed).
145. For example, the use of precautionary reference points to trigger further action: Art 6(3)(d) & Annex 2 para 5, Fish Stocks Agreement, supra, n 41; Annex 4 Part B, CITES Fort Lauderdale listing criteria, supra, n 43.
146. Supra, n 41.
147. Article 5(h).
148. Article 5(1).
149. Supra, n 44.
150. Article 12(a).
151. Article 12(b).
152. Article 12(c).
153. Article 4(1)(c).
154. Article 4(1)(g).
155. Article 4(1)(h).
156. Negotiating Text prepared by the Chairman of the Conference, UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, New York, 12-30 July 1993. A/CONF 164/13, 29 July 1993. See Freestone, supra, n 7 at 215.