Toward a comparative history of borderlands

Journal of World History

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 211-242

  Baud, Michiel ^a   Van Schendel, Willem ^b  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BORDERLANDS; HISTORICAL THEORY;

EID: 0031418616     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2005.0061     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. See, for instance, J. R. V. Prescott, Political Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). For a recent example, see Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World (London: Polity Press, 1996). An overview and a preliminary bibliography of borders can be found in René Barendse, Borderlands: A Theoretical Survey, Occasional Paper 4 (Rotterdam: Centre of Border Studies, 1994).
2. See, for instance, J. R. V. Prescott, Political Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). For a recent example, see Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World (London: Polity Press, 1996). An overview and a preliminary bibliography of borders can be found in René Barendse, Borderlands: A Theoretical Survey, Occasional Paper 4 (Rotterdam: Centre of Border Studies, 1994).
3. See, for instance, J. R. V. Prescott, Political Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). For a recent example, see Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World (London: Polity Press, 1996). An overview and a preliminary bibliography of borders can be found in René Barendse, Borderlands: A Theoretical Survey, Occasional Paper 4 (Rotterdam: Centre of Border Studies, 1994).
4. John W. House, Frontier on the Rio Grande: A Political Geography of Development and Social Deprivation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 264. In the quotation, we have substituted the word border for frontier.
5. Of course, our perspective is not completely new. An early example of this approach can be found in Richard Hartshorne, "A Survey of the Boundary Problems in Europe," in Geographic Aspects of International Relations, edited by Charles C. Colby (Chicago, 1938; reprint, Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), pp. 163-213. More recently, seminal research on the history of borderlands has been done by such scholars as Peter Sahlins, A. I. Asiwaju, and Lawrence Herzog. It is worth stressing that our article focuses exclusively on land borders, since maritime borders have very distinct characteristics.
6. For early discussions, see Lucien Febvre, "Frontière: The Word and the Concept" (1928), in A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, edited by Peter Burke (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973), pp. 208-18; and Ladis K. D. Kristof, "The Nature of Frontiers and Boundaries," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49 (1959): 269-82. See also Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, "Les frontières: Vision historique," Relations internationales 63 (fall 1990): 229-42.
7. For early discussions, see Lucien Febvre, "Frontière: The Word and the Concept" (1928), in A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, edited by Peter Burke (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973), pp. 208-18; and Ladis K. D. Kristof, "The Nature of Frontiers and Boundaries," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49 (1959): 269-82. See also Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, "Les frontières: Vision historique," Relations internationales 63 (fall 1990): 229-42.
8. For early discussions, see Lucien Febvre, "Frontière: The Word and the Concept" (1928), in A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, edited by Peter Burke (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973), pp. 208-18; and Ladis K. D. Kristof, "The Nature of Frontiers and Boundaries," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49 (1959): 269-82. See also Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, "Les frontières: Vision historique," Relations internationales 63 (fall 1990): 229-42.
9. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
10. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
11. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
12. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
13. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
14. E.g., Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Differences (London: Allen and Unwin, 1969); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985); and Anthony P. Cohen, ed., Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and Diversity in British Cultures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). Also, Raimundo Strassoldo, "Boundaries in Sociological Theory: A Reassessment," in Cooperation and Conflict in Border Regions, edited by R. Strassoldo and G. Delfi (Milan: Angeli, 1982), pp. 245-71. In the contemporary United States, many people have come to use the term frontier or frontera to indicate ethnic and cultural distinctions in the extended U.S.-Mexican borderland. In Chicano literature the concept of "border" or "frontera" has acquired strong symbolic connotations that have hardly anything to do anymore with the "real" border. See, e.g., Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987); and Carl Gutierrez-Jones, Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
15. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1894), in Selected Essays of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by R. A. Billington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961). See also the forum entitled "The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies" (and especially David A. Chappell, "Ethnogenesis and Frontiers"), Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (fall 1993): 267-75. For Latin America, see Alistair Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History (London: Edward Arnold, 1978). Peter Sahlins stresses that boundary and border evoke a precise linear division and frontier connotes more zonal qualities (Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989], p. 45).
16. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1894), in Selected Essays of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by R. A. Billington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961). See also the forum entitled "The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies" (and especially David A. Chappell, "Ethnogenesis and Frontiers"), Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (fall 1993): 267-75. For Latin America, see Alistair Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History (London: Edward Arnold, 1978). Peter Sahlins stresses that boundary and border evoke a precise linear division and frontier connotes more zonal qualities (Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989], p. 45).
17. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1894), in Selected Essays of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by R. A. Billington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961). See also the forum entitled "The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies" (and especially David A. Chappell, "Ethnogenesis and Frontiers"), Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (fall 1993): 267-75. For Latin America, see Alistair Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History (London: Edward Arnold, 1978). Peter Sahlins stresses that boundary and border evoke a precise linear division and frontier connotes more zonal qualities (Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989], p. 45).
18. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1894), in Selected Essays of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by R. A. Billington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961). See also the forum entitled "The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies" (and especially David A. Chappell, "Ethnogenesis and Frontiers"), Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (fall 1993): 267-75. For Latin America, see Alistair Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History (London: Edward Arnold, 1978). Peter Sahlins stresses that boundary and border evoke a precise linear division and frontier connotes more zonal qualities (Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989], p. 45).
19. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1894), in Selected Essays of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by R. A. Billington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961). See also the forum entitled "The Formation of Ethnic Identities in Frontier Societies" (and especially David A. Chappell, "Ethnogenesis and Frontiers"), Journal of World History 4, no. 2 (fall 1993): 267-75. For Latin America, see Alistair Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History (London: Edward Arnold, 1978). Peter Sahlins stresses that boundary and border evoke a precise linear division and frontier connotes more zonal qualities (Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989], p. 45).
20. For an erudite analysis of this process in Latin America, see Laurence Whitehead, "State Organization in Latin America since 1930," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 6, part 2, edited by Leslie Bethell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3-95, especially pp. 16-32. For the Caucasus, see John F. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield, eds., Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996); and for premodern Europe, Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering, and Statecraft (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 32-41. Konvitz describes the situation in Europe before 1789 as follows: "Jurisdictions overlapped, and nations often possessed enclaves, bits of land surrounded by territory belonging to another power. The appearance of a border as a continuous line on a small-scale seventeenthcentury map simplified a complex situation. Far from being at all regular or consistent, in many areas the boundary had no clearly defined shape on the ground" (p. 32).
21. For an erudite analysis of this process in Latin America, see Laurence Whitehead, "State Organization in Latin America since 1930," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 6, part 2, edited by Leslie Bethell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3-95, especially pp. 16-32. For the Caucasus, see John F. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield, eds., Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996); and for premodern Europe, Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering, and Statecraft (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 32-41. Konvitz describes the situation in Europe before 1789 as follows: "Jurisdictions overlapped, and nations often possessed enclaves, bits of land surrounded by territory belonging to another power. The appearance of a border as a continuous line on a small-scale seventeenthcentury map simplified a complex situation. Far from being at all regular or consistent, in many areas the boundary had no clearly defined shape on the ground" (p. 32).
22. For an erudite analysis of this process in Latin America, see Laurence Whitehead, "State Organization in Latin America since 1930," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 6, part 2, edited by Leslie Bethell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3-95, especially pp. 16-32. For the Caucasus, see John F. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield, eds., Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996); and for premodern Europe, Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering, and Statecraft (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 32-41. Konvitz describes the situation in Europe before 1789 as follows: "Jurisdictions overlapped, and nations often possessed enclaves, bits of land surrounded by territory belonging to another power. The appearance of a border as a continuous line on a small-scale seventeenthcentury map simplified a complex situation. Far from being at all regular or consistent, in many areas the boundary had no clearly defined shape on the ground" (p. 32).
23. This did not imply an end to preexisting cross-border communications. However, it did allow states to prohibit certain goods, animals, or people from entering the country. In Africa this often led to the curtailing of nomadism and migration in order to prevent the spread of human and animal diseases. See Roger Blench, "Pastoralists and National Borders in Nigeria," and Maryinez Lyons, "Foreign Bodies: The History of Labor Migration as a Threat to Public Health in Uganda," both in African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities, edited by Paul Nugent and A. I. Asiwaju (London: Printer Pub., 1996), pp. 111-28, 131-44.
24. This did not imply an end to preexisting cross-border communications. However, it did allow states to prohibit certain goods, animals, or people from entering the country. In Africa this often led to the curtailing of nomadism and migration in order to prevent the spread of human and animal diseases. See Roger Blench, "Pastoralists and National Borders in Nigeria," and Maryinez Lyons, "Foreign Bodies: The History of Labor Migration as a Threat to Public Health in Uganda," both in African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities, edited by Paul Nugent and A. I. Asiwaju (London: Printer Pub., 1996), pp. 111-28, 131-44.
25. Stephen B. Jones, Boundary Making: A Handbook for Statesmen, Treaty Editors and Boundary Commissioners (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945). The desire of states to have clear and uncontested borders formed the basis of most of the "classic" border literature: e.g., P. de Lapradelle, La frontière: Etude de droit international (Paris: 1928); Friedrich Ratzel, Politische Geographie (Munich and Leipzig: Oldenbourg, 1897); S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940).
26. Stephen B. Jones, Boundary Making: A Handbook for Statesmen, Treaty Editors and Boundary Commissioners (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945). The desire of states to have clear and uncontested borders formed the basis of most of the "classic" border literature: e.g., P. de Lapradelle, La frontière: Etude de droit international (Paris: 1928); Friedrich Ratzel, Politische Geographie (Munich and Leipzig: Oldenbourg, 1897); S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940).
27. Stephen B. Jones, Boundary Making: A Handbook for Statesmen, Treaty Editors and Boundary Commissioners (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945). The desire of states to have clear and uncontested borders formed the basis of most of the "classic" border literature: e.g., P. de Lapradelle, La frontière: Etude de droit international (Paris: 1928); Friedrich Ratzel, Politische Geographie (Munich and Leipzig: Oldenbourg, 1897); S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940).
28. Stephen B. Jones, Boundary Making: A Handbook for Statesmen, Treaty Editors and Boundary Commissioners (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945). The desire of states to have clear and uncontested borders formed the basis of most of the "classic" border literature: e.g., P. de Lapradelle, La frontière: Etude de droit international (Paris: 1928); Friedrich Ratzel, Politische Geographie (Munich and Leipzig: Oldenbourg, 1897); S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940).
29. James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988).
30. James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988).
31. Sahlins, Boundaries, p. 276. This has also been the principal argument in the work of A. I. Asiwaju.
32. E.g., J. R. V. Prescott, The Geography of Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965), pp. 33-34.
33. A. I. Asiwaju, "Borderlands in Africa: A Comparative Research Perspective with Particular Reference to Western Europe," Journal of Borderlands Studies 8, no. 2 (1993): 1-12; reprinted in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 253-65.
34. A. I. Asiwaju, "Borderlands in Africa: A Comparative Research Perspective with Particular Reference to Western Europe," Journal of Borderlands Studies 8, no. 2 (1993): 1-12; reprinted in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 253-65.
35. Sven Tägil, coord., Studying Boundary Conflicts (Lund: Esselte Studium, 1977), p. 14.
36. Stanley R. Ross, "Foreword," in Views across the Border: The United States and Mexico, edited by Stanley R. Ross (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978), p. xii (emphasis added).
37. Quoted in David Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands, and Comparisons: Towards the Internationalization of American History," Journal of American History 79 (1992): 432-62, especially p. 437. See also Jorge Bustamante, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (1992): 485-90.
38. Quoted in David Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands, and Comparisons: Towards the Internationalization of American History," Journal of American History 79 (1992): 432-62, especially p. 437. See also Jorge Bustamante, "Demystifying the United States-Mexico Border," Journal of American History 79 (1992): 485-90.
39. Principle that leaves belligerents in possession of what they have acquired (Latin, "as you possess").
40. According to Caflisch, this process was especially clear in the postcolonial states of Latin America and Africa. Lucius Caflisch, "Essai d'une typologie des frontières," Relations internationales 63 (fall 1990): 265-93, especially pp. 270-71.
41. This is a well-studied theme for northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. See, e.g., Enrique C. Ochoa, "Investigacion reciente en torno al norte de México y la región fronteriza entre Estados Unidos y México a partir del Porfiriato," Revista mexicana de sociología 53, no. 3 (July-September 1991): 351-68, especially pp. 353-55.
42. See Stuart F. Voss, On the Periphery of Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Sonora and Sinaloa, 1810-1877 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982).
43. For the prelude, see Michiel Baud, "Una Frontera-refugio: Dominicanos y Haitianos contra el Estado (1870-1930)," Estudios sociales (Santo Domingo) 26, no. 92 (April-June 1993): 39-64. See also Lauren Derby, "Haitians, Magic, and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian-Dominican Borderlands, 1900-1937," Comparative Studies in Society and History 36 (1994): 488-526.
44. For the prelude, see Michiel Baud, "Una Frontera-refugio: Dominicanos y Haitianos contra el Estado (1870-1930)," Estudios sociales (Santo Domingo) 26, no. 92 (April-June 1993): 39-64. See also Lauren Derby, "Haitians, Magic, and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian-Dominican Borderlands, 1900-1937," Comparative Studies in Society and History 36 (1994): 488-526.
45. Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity (London: Zed Books, 1991); cf. Constance M. Wilson and Lucien M. Hanks, The Burma-Thailand Frontier over Sixteen Decades, Ohio University Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asian Series 70 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University, 1985).
46. Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity (London: Zed Books, 1991); cf. Constance M. Wilson and Lucien M. Hanks, The Burma-Thailand Frontier over Sixteen Decades, Ohio University Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asian Series 70 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University, 1985).
47. Oscar Martínez, Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), pp. 5-10.
48. Michael Kearney, "Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire," Journal of Historical Sociology 4, no. 1 (March 1991): 52-74; and Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1996): 547-65. See also Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands," pp. 440-41; and Linda Basch et al., Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, 1994).
49. Michael Kearney, "Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire," Journal of Historical Sociology 4, no. 1 (March 1991): 52-74; and Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1996): 547-65. See also Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands," pp. 440-41; and Linda Basch et al., Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, 1994).
50. Michael Kearney, "Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire," Journal of Historical Sociology 4, no. 1 (March 1991): 52-74; and Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1996): 547-65. See also Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands," pp. 440-41; and Linda Basch et al., Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, 1994).
51. Michael Kearney, "Borders and Boundaries of State and Self at the End of Empire," Journal of Historical Sociology 4, no. 1 (March 1991): 52-74; and Kearney, "The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1996): 547-65. See also Thelen, "Of Audiences, Borderlands," pp. 440-41; and Linda Basch et al., Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, 1994).
52. On urban borderlands, see, e.g., Lawrence A. Herzog, "Changing Boundaries in the Americas: An Overview," in Changing Boundaries in the Americas: New Perspectives on the U.S.-Mexican, Central American, and South American Borders (San Diego: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, 1992), pp. 3-24, especially p. 9. Also Daniel D. Arreola and James R. Curtis, The Mexican Border Cities: Landscape Anatomy and Place Personality (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993), pp. 22-41 and passim.
53. On urban borderlands, see, e.g., Lawrence A. Herzog, "Changing Boundaries in the Americas: An Overview," in Changing Boundaries in the Americas: New Perspectives on the U.S.-Mexican, Central American, and South American Borders (San Diego: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, 1992), pp. 3-24, especially p. 9. Also Daniel D. Arreola and James R. Curtis, The Mexican Border Cities: Landscape Anatomy and Place Personality (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993), pp. 22-41 and passim.
54. E.g., James R. Akerman, "Cartography and the Emergence of Territorial States in Western Europe," in Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, edited by John F. Sweets (Lawrence: University of Kansas, 1984), pp. 84-93. For a comparable perspective, see Whitehead, "State Organization in Latin America," pp. 52-55.
55. E.g., James R. Akerman, "Cartography and the Emergence of Territorial States in Western Europe," in Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, edited by John F. Sweets (Lawrence: University of Kansas, 1984), pp. 84-93. For a comparable perspective, see Whitehead, "State Organization in Latin America," pp. 52-55.
56. Hartshorne, "A Survey of the Boundary Problems," pp. 172-81.
57. For a concise analysis of the different U.S. (expansive) and Chinese (defensive) conceptions of the frontier, see Stephen B. Jones, "Boundary Concepts in the Setting of Place and Time," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49 (1959): 241-55, especially p. 164,
58. The frontier region between the United States and Mexico presents a clear and well-studied example of one such historical process in which a twofold frontier region gradually gave way to a formal, and nowadays even sharply emphasized, borderland. For a recent study with an exhaustive bibliography, see David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
59. Jean Brunhes and Camille Vallaux called these borders "dead" because they had not changed for centuries. Their classification was the result of the geopolitical thinking of the time, in which nations and borders were considered living organisms that needed to be in constant flux. See Jean Brunhes and Camille Vallaux, La géographie de l'histoire (Paris, 1921); also Ratzel, Politische Geographie.
60. Jean Brunhes and Camille Vallaux called these borders "dead" because they had not changed for centuries. Their classification was the result of the geopolitical thinking of the time, in which nations and borders were considered living organisms that needed to be in constant flux. See Jean Brunhes and Camille Vallaux, La géographie de l'histoire (Paris, 1921); also Ratzel, Politische Geographie.
61. See J. W. Cole and Eric Wolf, The Hidden Frontier: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Alpine Village (New York: Academic Press, 1974).
62. Martínez, Border People, pp. 27-28, suggests an evolutionary process in which his four models are, so to say, four stages, but he does not appear to allow for different patterns of historical change.
63. Lawrence A. Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S.-Mexico Border (Austin: Center for Mexican American Studies, 1990), p. 135.
64. See Benedict O. G. Anderson, Long-Distance Nationalism: World Capitalism and the Rise of Identity Politics (Amsterdam: Centre for Asian Studies, Amsterdam, 1992).
65. For an interesting historical analysis of such a process, see Rodolfo O. de la Garza and Claudio Vargas, "The Mexican-Origin Population of the United States as a Political Force in the Borderlands: From Paisanos to Pochos to Potential Political Allies," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 89-111.
66. Alastair Lamb, Asian Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp. 99-108.
67. See Thomas M. Wilson, "Frontiers Go But Boundaries Remain: The Irish Border as a Cultural Divide," in Cultural Change and the New Europe: Perspectives on the European Community, edited by Thomas M. Wilson and M. Estellie Smith (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 167-87.
68. These struggles have been best documented for the Burmese part of the Golden Triangle. See, e.g., Bertil Lintner, Land of Jade: A Journey through Insurgent Burma (Edinburgh/Bangkok: Kiscadale/White Lotus, 1990); Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity.
69. These struggles have been best documented for the Burmese part of the Golden Triangle. See, e.g., Bertil Lintner, Land of Jade: A Journey through Insurgent Burma (Edinburgh/Bangkok: Kiscadale/White Lotus, 1990); Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity.
70. In many peripheral parts of Colombia, the functions of the state have been taken over by an alliance of narcotraficantes and leftist guerrillas. See Alfredo Molano, Selva adentro: Una historia oral de la colonizatión del Guaviare (Bogotá: El Ancora Editores, 1987). For a similar process in Peru, see David Scott Palmer, ed., Shining Path of Peru (London: Hurst, 1992).
71. In many peripheral parts of Colombia, the functions of the state have been taken over by an alliance of narcotraficantes and leftist guerrillas. See Alfredo Molano, Selva adentro: Una historia oral de la colonizatión del Guaviare (Bogotá: El Ancora Editores, 1987). For a similar process in Peru, see David Scott Palmer, ed., Shining Path of Peru (London: Hurst, 1992).
72. This has been a focus of attention in the extensive literature on the Mexico-U.S. border. See, for instance, Herzog, Changing Boundaries; and House, Frontier on the Rio Grande. See also the journals Frontera None (Tijuana) and Journal of Borderlands Studies.
73. This has been a focus of attention in the extensive literature on the Mexico-U.S. border. See, for instance, Herzog, Changing Boundaries; and House, Frontier on the Rio Grande. See also the journals Frontera None (Tijuana) and Journal of Borderlands Studies.
74. This has been a focus of attention in the extensive literature on the Mexico-U.S. border. See, for instance, Herzog, Changing Boundaries; and House, Frontier on the Rio Grande. See also the journals Frontera None (Tijuana) and Journal of Borderlands Studies.
75. This has been a focus of attention in the extensive literature on the Mexico-U.S. border. See, for instance, Herzog, Changing Boundaries; and House, Frontier on the Rio Grande. See also the journals Frontera None (Tijuana) and Journal of Borderlands Studies.
76. Paul Nugent and A. I. Asiwaju, "Introduction: The Paradox of African Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, p. 7.
77. For example, David Collins, "Partitioned Culture Areas and Smuggling: The Hausa and Groundnut Trade across the Nigeria-Niger Boundary up to the 1970s," in Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984, edited by A. I. Asiwaju (London/Lagos: C. Hurst/University Press of Lagos, 1985), pp. 195-221; Willem van Schendel, "Easy Come Easy Go: Smugglers on the Ganges," Journal of Contemporary Asia 23, no. 2 (1993): 189-213.
78. For example, David Collins, "Partitioned Culture Areas and Smuggling: The Hausa and Groundnut Trade across the Nigeria-Niger Boundary up to the 1970s," in Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984, edited by A. I. Asiwaju (London/Lagos: C. Hurst/University Press of Lagos, 1985), pp. 195-221; Willem van Schendel, "Easy Come Easy Go: Smugglers on the Ganges," Journal of Contemporary Asia 23, no. 2 (1993): 189-213.
79. Van Schendel, "Easy Come Easy Go."
80. Michiel Baud, "Una frontera para cruzar: La sociedad rural a través de la frontera Dominicana-Haitiana (1870-1930)," Estudios sociales (Santo Domingo) 26, no. 94 (October-December 1993): 5-28.
81. For an early critique, published in 1938 when the issue was extremely highly charged politically, see Hartshorne, "A Survey of the Boundary Problems."
82. Myron Weiner, "Transborder Peoples," in Mexican Americans in Comparative Perspective, edited by Walker Connor (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1985), pp. 130-58, at p. 155.
83. Willem van Schendel, "The Invention of the 'Jummas': State Formation and Ethnicity in Southeastern Bangladesh," Modern Asian Studies 26, no. 1 (1992): 95-128; reprinted in Indigenous Peoples of Asia, edited by R. H. Barnes, Andrew Gray and Benedict Kingsbury (Ann Arbor: Association for Asian Studies, 1995), pp. 121-44.
84. Willem van Schendel, "The Invention of the 'Jummas': State Formation and Ethnicity in Southeastern Bangladesh," Modern Asian Studies 26, no. 1 (1992): 95-128; reprinted in Indigenous Peoples of Asia, edited by R. H. Barnes, Andrew Gray and Benedict Kingsbury (Ann Arbor: Association for Asian Studies, 1995), pp. 121-44.
85. For example, Sahlins, Boundaries, pp. 166-67. Also Baud, "Una Frontera para cruzar."
86. For example, Sahlins, Boundaries, pp. 166-67. Also Baud, "Una Frontera para cruzar."
87. In the case of the Mexico-U.S. border there is a growing awareness of the ethnic and cultural aspects of borderland society. See, e.g., "Border Perspectives on the U.S./Mexico Relationship," special issue, New Scholar 9, nos. 1-2 (1984).
88. See Jack Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America: Quarrels among Neighbors (New York: Praeger, 1985); and Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1969). For good case studies, see Bryce Wood, Aggression and History: The Case of Ecuador and Peru (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1978); and Neville Maxwell, India's China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970).
89. See Jack Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America: Quarrels among Neighbors (New York: Praeger, 1985); and Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1969). For good case studies, see Bryce Wood, Aggression and History: The Case of Ecuador and Peru (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1978); and Neville Maxwell, India's China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970).
90. See Jack Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America: Quarrels among Neighbors (New York: Praeger, 1985); and Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1969). For good case studies, see Bryce Wood, Aggression and History: The Case of Ecuador and Peru (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1978); and Neville Maxwell, India's China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970).
91. See Jack Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America: Quarrels among Neighbors (New York: Praeger, 1985); and Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1969). For good case studies, see Bryce Wood, Aggression and History: The Case of Ecuador and Peru (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1978); and Neville Maxwell, India's China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970).
92. Lamb, Asian Frontiers.
93. For an overview, see Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 87-105.
94. This dictum is from the Argentinian politician Domingo F. Sarmiento, Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants; or, Civilization and Barbarism (New York: Hafher, 1971; original edition in Spanish, 1845).
95. This dictum is from the Argentinian politician Domingo F. Sarmiento, Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants; or, Civilization and Barbarism (New York: Hafher, 1971; original edition in Spanish, 1845).
96. See Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History; and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, "Civilization and Barbarism: Cattle Frontiers in Latin America," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978): 578-620. Also Richard W. Slatta, "Historical Frontier Imagery in the Americas," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 25-46. An uneven collection of earlier published material is David J. Weber and Jane M. Rausch, eds., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1994). A good historical monograph is Catherine LeGrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
97. See Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History; and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, "Civilization and Barbarism: Cattle Frontiers in Latin America," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978): 578-620. Also Richard W. Slatta, "Historical Frontier Imagery in the Americas," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 25-46. An uneven collection of earlier published material is David J. Weber and Jane M. Rausch, eds., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1994). A good historical monograph is Catherine LeGrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
98. See Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History; and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, "Civilization and Barbarism: Cattle Frontiers in Latin America," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978): 578-620. Also Richard W. Slatta, "Historical Frontier Imagery in the Americas," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 25-46. An uneven collection of earlier published material is David J. Weber and Jane M. Rausch, eds., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1994). A good historical monograph is Catherine LeGrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
99. See Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History; and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, "Civilization and Barbarism: Cattle Frontiers in Latin America," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978): 578-620. Also Richard W. Slatta, "Historical Frontier Imagery in the Americas," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 25-46. An uneven collection of earlier published material is David J. Weber and Jane M. Rausch, eds., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1994). A good historical monograph is Catherine LeGrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
100. See Hennessy, The Frontier in Latin American History; and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, "Civilization and Barbarism: Cattle Frontiers in Latin America," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (1978): 578-620. Also Richard W. Slatta, "Historical Frontier Imagery in the Americas," in Herzog, Changing Boundaries, pp. 25-46. An uneven collection of earlier published material is David J. Weber and Jane M. Rausch, eds., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1994). A good historical monograph is Catherine LeGrand, Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
101. See, e.g., Herzog, Changing Boundaries. See also Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America; and Wood, Aggression and History.
102. See, e.g., Herzog, Changing Boundaries. See also Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America; and Wood, Aggression and History.
103. See, e.g., Herzog, Changing Boundaries. See also Child, Geopolitics and Conflict in South America; and Wood, Aggression and History.
104. Such rejections of state boundaries are more general in Asia and Africa, For a beginning of a comparison, see Weiner, "Transborder Peoples," especially pp. 152-58.
105. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans, especially the list on pp. 256-59; Ieuan Griffiths, "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries," Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 204-16. The importance of the Berlin Conference for the partition of Africa is qualified in Simon Katzenellenbogen, "It Didn't Happen at Berlin: Politics, Economics and Ignorance in the Setting of Africa's Colonial Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 21-34. For a comprehensive diplomatic overview, see Ian Brownlie, African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia (London/Berkeley: C. Hurst/University of California Press, 1979). See also Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 78-87.
106. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans, especially the list on pp. 256-59; Ieuan Griffiths, "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries," Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 204-16. The importance of the Berlin Conference for the partition of Africa is qualified in Simon Katzenellenbogen, "It Didn't Happen at Berlin: Politics, Economics and Ignorance in the Setting of Africa's Colonial Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 21-34. For a comprehensive diplomatic overview, see Ian Brownlie, African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia (London/Berkeley: C. Hurst/University of California Press, 1979). See also Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 78-87.
107. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans, especially the list on pp. 256-59; Ieuan Griffiths, "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries," Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 204-16. The importance of the Berlin Conference for the partition of Africa is qualified in Simon Katzenellenbogen, "It Didn't Happen at Berlin: Politics, Economics and Ignorance in the Setting of Africa's Colonial Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 21-34. For a comprehensive diplomatic overview, see Ian Brownlie, African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia (London/Berkeley: C. Hurst/University of California Press, 1979). See also Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 78-87.
108. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans, especially the list on pp. 256-59; Ieuan Griffiths, "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries," Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 204-16. The importance of the Berlin Conference for the partition of Africa is qualified in Simon Katzenellenbogen, "It Didn't Happen at Berlin: Politics, Economics and Ignorance in the Setting of Africa's Colonial Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 21-34. For a comprehensive diplomatic overview, see Ian Brownlie, African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia (London/Berkeley: C. Hurst/University of California Press, 1979). See also Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 78-87.
109. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans, especially the list on pp. 256-59; Ieuan Griffiths, "The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries," Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 204-16. The importance of the Berlin Conference for the partition of Africa is qualified in Simon Katzenellenbogen, "It Didn't Happen at Berlin: Politics, Economics and Ignorance in the Setting of Africa's Colonial Boundaries," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 21-34. For a comprehensive diplomatic overview, see Ian Brownlie, African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia (London/Berkeley: C. Hurst/University of California Press, 1979). See also Anderson, Frontiers, pp. 78-87.
110. See Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation State (London: James Currey, 1992).
111. Paul Nugent, "Arbitrary Lines and the People's Minds: A Dissenting View on Colonial Boundaries in West Africa," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 35-67.
112. Nugent, "Arbitrary Lines," p. 60.
113. See especially Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans; and Asiwaju and Nugent, African Boundaries.
114. See especially Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans; and Asiwaju and Nugent, African Boundaries.
115. O. Adejuyigbe, "Identification and Characteristics of Borderlands in Africa," in Borderlands in Africa: A Multidisciplinary and Comparative Focus on Nigeria and West Africa, edited by A. I. Asiwaju and P. O. Adeniyi (Lagos: Lagos University Press, 1989), pp. 27-36, especially pp. 34-35.
116. Davidson, The Black Man's Burden, pp. 202-203.
117. Nugent, "Arbitrary Lines," pp. 55-60.
118. Ieuan Griffiths, "Permeable Boundaries in Africa," in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries, pp. 68-83.
119. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983; reprint, New York: Verso, 1991); E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Also Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
120. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983; reprint, New York: Verso, 1991); E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Also Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
121. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983; reprint, New York: Verso, 1991); E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Also Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).