A physically based scheme for the treatment of stratiform clouds and precipitation in large-scale models. I: Description and evaluation of the microphysical processes

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society

Volumn 123, Issue 541, 1997, Pages 1227-1282

  Rotstayn, Leon D ^a,b  

^a CSIRO   (Australia)

^b CSIRO Div of Atmospheric Research ^*  (Australia)

Author keywords

Clouds; Global climate models; Microphysics; Precipitation

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE MODEL; CLOUD MICROPHYSICS; MODEL EVALUATION; PRECIPITATION; STRATIFORM CLOUD;

EID: 0031416166     PISSN: 00359009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/qj.49712354106     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Arakawa, A 1972 Design of the UCLA general circulation model. Numerical simulation of weather and climate. Tech. Report No. 7, Dept. Meteor., Univ. California Los Angeles, USA
2. Beard, K. V. and Pruppacher, H. R. 1971 A wind tunnel investigation of the rate of evaporation of small water droplets falling at terminal velocity in air. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 1455-1464
3. Bermejo, R. and Staniforth, A. 1992 The conversion of semi-Lagrangian advection schemes to quasimonotone schemes. Mon. Weather Rev., 120, 2622-2632
4. Berry, E. X. and Reinhardt, R. L. 1974a An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part I. Double distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1814-1824 1974b An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part II. Single initial distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1825-1831
5. Berry, E. X. and Reinhardt, R. L. 1974a An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part I. Double distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1814-1824 1974b An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part II. Single initial distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1825-1831
6. Boucher, O., Le Treut, H. and Baker, M. B. 1995 Precipitation and radiation modelling in a GCM: Introduction of cloud microphysical processes. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 16395-16414
7. Bower, K. N., Moss, S. J., Johnson, D. W., Choularton, T. W., Latham, J., Brown, P. R. A. and Cardwell, J. 1996 A parametrization of the ice water content observed in frontal and convective clouds. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 1815-1844
8. Cahalan, R. F., Ridgeway, W., Wiscombe, W. J. and Bell, T. L. 1994 The albedo of fractal stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2434-2455
9. Cess, R. D., Potter, G. L., Blanchett, J. P., Boer, G. J., Del Genio, A. D., Déqúe, M., Dymnikov, V, Galin, V., Gates, W. L., Ghan, S. J., Kiehl, J. T., Lacis, A. A., Le Treut, H., Li, Z.-X., Liang, X.-Z., McAvaney, B. J., Meleshko, V. P., Mitchell, J. F. B., Morcrette, J.-J., Randall, D. A., Rikus, L., Roeckner, E., Royer, J. F., Schlese, U., Sheinin, D. A., Slingo, A., Sokolov, A. P., Taylor, K. E., Washington, W. M., Wetherald, R. T., Yagai, I. and Zhang, M.-H. 1990 Intercomparison and interpretation of climate feedback processes in 19 atmospheric general circulation models. J. Geophys Res., 95, 16601-16615
10. Cess, R. D., Potter, G. L., Gates, W. L., Morcrette, J.-J. and Corsetti, L. 1992 Comparison of general circulation models to earth radiation budget experiment data: Computation of clear sky fluxes.J. Geophys. Res., 97, 20421-20426
11. Clough, S. A. and Franks, R. A. A. 1991 The evaporation of frontal and other stratiform precipitation. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 117, 1057-1080
12. Cotton, W. R., Stephens, M. A., Nehrkorn, T. and Tripoli, G. J. 1982 The Colorado State University three-dimensional cloud/mesoscale model-1982. Part II: An ice phase parameterization. J. Rech. Atmos., 16, 295-320
13. Cotton, W. R., Tripoli, G. J., Rauber, P. M. and Mulvihill, E. A. 1986 Numerical simulation of the effects of varying ice crystal nucleation rates and aggregation processes on orographic snowfall. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol., 25, 1658-1680
14. Ek, M. and Mahrt, L. 1991 A formulation for boundary layer cloud cover. Ann. Geophysicae, 9, 716-724
15. Flato, G. M. and Hibler, W. III 1990 On a simple sea ice dynamics model for climate studies. Adv. Geophys., 14, 72-77
16. Fletcher, N. H. 1962 The physics of rainclouds. Cambridge University Press
17. Fowler, L. D., Randall, D. A. and Rutledge, S. A. 1996 Liquid and ice cloud microphysics in the CSU general circulation model. Part I: Model description and simulated microphysical processes. J. Climate, 9, 489-529
18. Francis, P. N., Jones, A., Saunders, R. W., Shine, K. P., Slingo, A. and Sun, Z. 1994 An observational and theoretical study of the radiative properties of cirrus: Some results from ICE'89. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 120, 809-848
19. Gayet, J.-F., Giraud, V., Delannoy, A. and Larsen, H. 1993 'Description of the French microphysical data bank: Application to global change'. Pp. 188-193 in Proceedings of WMO workshop on cloud microphysics and applications to global change, 10-14 August 1992, Toronto, Canada. WMO/TD-no. 537. World Meteorological Organization
20. Geleyn, J. 1987 'Use of a modified Richardson number for parameterizing the effect of shallow convection'. Pp. 141-149 in Short- and Medium-Range Weather Prediction. Collection of Papers Presented at the WMO/IUGG NWP Symposium, Tokyo, 4-8 August 1986. Meteorological Society of Japan
21. Ghan, S. J. and Easter, R. C. 1992 Computationally efficient approximations to stratiform cloud microphysics parameterization. Mon. Weather Rev., 120, 1572-1582
22. Gordon, H. B. 1981 A flux formulation of the spectral atmospheric equations suitable for use in long term climate modeling. Mon. Weather Rev., 109, 56-64
23. Greenwald, T. J., Stephens, G. L., Vonder Haar, T. H. and Jackson, D. L. 1993 A physical retrieval of cloud liquid water over the global oceans using special sensor microwave/imager (SSM/I) observations J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18471-18489
24. Gregory, D. 1995 A consistent treatment of the evaporation of rain and snow for use in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 123, 2716-2732
25. Gunn, R. and Kinzer, G. D. 1949 The terminal velocity of fall for water drops in stagnant air. J. Meteorol., 6, 243-248
26. Hack, J. J., Boville, B. A., Briegleb, B. P., Kiehl, J. T., Rasch, P. J. and Williamson, D. L. 1993 'Description of the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM2)'. Tech. Note TN-382+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA
27. Harshvardhan and Randall, D. A. 1985 Comments on 'The parameterization of radiation for numerical weather prediction and climate models'. Mon. Weather Rev., 113, 1832-1835
28. Heymsfield, A. J. 1977 Precipitation development in stratiform ice clouds: a microphysical and dynamical study. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 367-381 1993 'Microphysical structures of stratiform and cirrus clouds'. Pp. 97-121 in Aerosol-Cloud-Climate Interactions, P. V. Hobbs Ed., Academic Press
29. Heymsfield, A. J. 1977 Precipitation development in stratiform ice clouds: a microphysical and dynamical study. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 367-381 1993 'Microphysical structures of stratiform and cirrus clouds'. Pp. 97-121 in Aerosol-Cloud-Climate Interactions, P. V. Hobbs Ed., Academic Press
30. Heymsfield, A. J. and Miloshevich, L. M. 1995 Relative humdity and temperature influences on cirrus formation and evolution: observations from wave clouds and FIRE II. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 4302-4326
31. Holtslag, A. A. M. and Boville, B. A. 1993 Local versus non-local boundary layer diffusion in a global climate model. J. Climate, 6, 1825-1842
32. Jakob, C. and Morcrette, J.-J. 1995 'Sensitivity of the ECMWF model to the treatment of the ice phase'. Pp. 37-46 in Proceedings of Workshop on cloud microphysics parameterizations in global atmospheric circulation models. WMO/TD no. 713. World Meteorological Organization
33. Jones, A., Roberts, D.L. and Slingo, A. 1994 A climate model study of indirect anthropogenic sulphate aerosols. Nature, 370, 450-453
34. Katzfey, J. J. 1994 'Investigations of cumulus parameterizations for an Australian coastal low'. Pp. 129-134 in Parameterisation of physical processes: papers presented at the fifth BMRC Modelling Workshop, November 1993, J. D. Jasper, and P. J. Meighen Eds., BMRC, GPO Box 1289K, Melbourne, 3001, Australia
35. Kessler, E. 1969 On the distribution and continuity of water substance in atmospheric circulation', Vol. 10 no. 32 of Meteorol. Mono. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, USA
36. Kogan, Z. N., Lilly, D. K., Kogan, Y. L. and Filyushkin, V. 95 Evaluation of radiative parameterizations using an explicit cloud microphysical model. Atmos. Res., 35, 157-172
37. Kowalczyk, E. A., Garratt, J. R. and Krummel, P. B. 1991 'A soil-canopy scheme for use in a numerical model of the atmosphere - 1D stand-alone model'. Tech. Paper No. 23, CSIRO Div. Atmos. Res., PMB1, Aspendale, Vie., 3195, Australia
38. Kristjánsson, J. E. 1994 Tests of a new cloud treatment in an atmospheric general circulation model. Physica D, 77, 23-32
39. Lacis, A. A. and Hansen, J. E. 1974 A parameterization for the absorption of solar radiation in the Earth's atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 118-133
40. Le Treut, H. and Li, Z.-X. 1988 Using Meteosat data to validate a prognostic cloud generation scheme. Atmos. Res., 21, 273-292
41. Le Treut, H., Li, Z.-X. and Forichan, M. 1994 Sensitivity of the LMD general circulation model to greenhouse forcing associated with two different cloud water parameterizations. J. Climate, 7, 1827-1841
42. Lin, Y.-L., Farley, R. D. and Orville, H. D. 1983 Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol., 22, 1065-1092
43. Catelli, J. D. and Hobbs, P. V. 1974 Fallspeeds and masses of solid precipitation particles.J. Geophys. Res., 79, 2185-2197
44. Loeb, N. G. and Davies, R. 1996 Observational evidence of plane parallel model biases: apparent dependence of cloud optical depth on solar zenith angle. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1621-1634
45. Louis, J.-F. 1979 A parametric model of vertical eddy fluxes in the atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 17, 187-202
46. Manton, M. J. and Cotton, W. R. 1977 'Formulation of approximate equations for modeling moist deep convection on the mesoscale'. Atmos. Sci. Paper No. 266, Dept. Atmos. Sci., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
47. Marshall, K. S. and Palmer, W. M. 1948 The distribution of raindrops with size. J. Meteorol., 5, 165-166
48. Martin, G. M., Johnson, D. W. and Spice, A. 1994 The measurement and parameterization of effective radius of droplets in warm stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1823-1842
49. Mason, B. J. 1971 The physics of clouds (2nd edition). Clarendon Press, Oxford 1975 Clouds, rain and rainmaking (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press
50. Mason, B. J. 1971 The physics of clouds (2nd edition). Clarendon Press, Oxford 1975 Clouds, rain and rainmaking (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press
51. Mazin I. P. 1994 On the climatology and physical structure of clouds. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 30, 318-324
52. McGregor, J. L., Gordon, H. B., Watterson, I. G., Dix, M. R. and Rotstayn, L. D. 1993 'The CSIRO 9-level atmospheric general circulation model'. Tech. Paper No. 26, CSIRO Div. Atmos. Res., PMB1, Aspendale, Vic., 3195, Australia
53. Gregor, J. L. 1993 Economical determination of departure points for semi-Lagrangian models. Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 221-230
54. 2 and climate: A missing feedback? Nature, 341, 132-134
55. Ose, T. 1993 An examination of the effects of explicit cloud water in the UCLA GCM. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 71, 93-109
56. Pitter, R. L. and Pruppacher, H. R. 1974 A numerical simulation of collision efficiencies of simple ice plates colliding with supercooled water drops. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 551-557
57. Platt, C. M. R. 1994 'Parameterization of cloud-radiation interactions from observations'. Pp. 153-158 in Parametrisation of physical processes: Papers presented at the fifth BMRC Modelling Workshop, November 1993, J. D. Jasper, and P. J. Meighen Eds., BMRC, GPO Box 1289K, Melbourne, 3001, Australia 1997 A parametrization of the visible extinction coefficient of ice clouds in terms of ice content. J. Atmos. Sci., 53. In press
58. Platt, C. M. R. 1994 'Parameterization of cloud-radiation interactions from observations'. Pp. 153-158 in Parametrisation of physical processes: Papers presented at the fifth BMRC Modelling Workshop, November 1993, J. D. Jasper, and P. J. Meighen Eds., BMRC, GPO Box 1289K, Melbourne, 3001, Australia 1997 A parametrization of the visible extinction coefficient of ice clouds in terms of ice content. J. Atmos. Sci., 53. In press
59. Platt, C. M. R. and Stephens, G. L. 1980 The interpretation of remotely sensed high cloud emittances. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2314-2322
60. Randall, D. A. 1989 Cloud parameterization for climate modelling: Status and prospects. Atmos. Res., 23, 345-361
61. Rangno, A. L. and Hobbs, P. V. 1994 Ice particle concentrations and precipitation development in small continental cumuliform clouds. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 120, 573-601
62. Ricard, J. L. and Royer, J. F. 1993 A statistical cloud scheme for use in an AGCM. Ann. Geophysicae, 11, 1095-1115
63. Roeckner, E., Arpe, K., Bengtsson, L., Brinkop, S., Dümenil, L., Esch, M., Kirk, E., Lunkeit, F., Ponater, M., Rockel, B., Sausen, R., Schlese, U., Schubert, S. and Windelband, M. 1992 'Simulation of the present-day climate with the ECHAM model: Impact of model physics and resolution'. Report No. 93, MaxPlanck-Institut für Meteorologie, Hamburg, Germany
64. Rogers, R. R. and Yau, M. K. 1988 A short course in cloud physics (3rd edition). Pergamon Press, Oxford
65. Rossow, W. B., Walker, A. W., Beuschel, D. E. and Roiter, M. D. 1996 'International satellite cloud climatology project (ISCCP) documentation of new cloud datasets'. WMO/TD-No. 737, World Meteorological Organization
66. Rutledge, S. A. and Hobbs, P. V. 1983 The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in midlatitude cyclones. VIII: A model for the "seeder-feeder" process in warm-frontal rainbands. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 1185-1206
67. Ryan, B. F., Wishart, E. R. and Shaw, D. E. 1976 The growth rates and densities of ice crystals between -3 °C and -21 °C. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 842-850
68. Ryan, B. F. 1996 On the global variation of precipitating layer clouds. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 53-70
69. Sauvageot, H. and Lacaux, J.-P. 1995 The shape of averaged drop size distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1070-1083
70. Schwarzkopf, M. D. and Fels, S. B. 1991 The simplified exchange method revisited: An accurate, rapid method for computation of infrared cooling rates and fluxes. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 9075-9096
71. Semtner, A. J. Jr. 1976 A model for the thermodynamic growth of sea ice in numerical investigations of climate. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6, 379-389
72. Senior, C. A. and Mitchell, J. F. B. 1993 Carbon dioxide and climate: The impact of cloud parameterization. J. Climate, 6, 393-418
73. Simmons, A. J. and Jiabin, C. 1991 The calculation of geopotential and the pressure gradient in the ECMWF atmospheric model: Influence on the simulation of the polar atmosphere and on temperature analyses. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 117, 29-58
74. Simmons, A. J., Burridge, D. M., Jarraud, M., Girard, C. and Wergen, W. 1989 The ECMWF medium-range prediction models. Development of the numerical formulations and the impact of increased resolution. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 40, 28-60
75. Slingo, A. 1989 A GCM parameterization for the shortwave radiative properties of water clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1419-1427
76. Slingo J. M. 1987 The development and verification of a cloud prediction scheme for the ECMWF model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 113, 899-927
77. Smith, R. N. B. 1990 A scheme for predicting layer clouds and their water content in a general circulation model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 116, 435-460 1993 'Experience and developments with the layer cloud and boundary layer mixing schemes in the UK Meteorological Office Unified Model'. Pp. 319-339 in Proceedings of a workshop held at ECMWF on parametrization of the cloud topped boundary layer, 8-11 June 1993, Reading. ECMWF
78. Smith, R. N. B. 1990 A scheme for predicting layer clouds and their water content in a general circulation model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 116, 435-460 1993 'Experience and developments with the layer cloud and boundary layer mixing schemes in the UK Meteorological Office Unified Model'. Pp. 319-339 in Proceedings of a workshop held at ECMWF on parametrization of the cloud topped boundary layer, 8-11 June 1993, Reading. ECMWF
79. Smith, R., Gregory, D., Mithcell, J. and Bushell, A. 1995 'Large-scale precipitation'. Documentation Paper No. 26, Unified Model, Available from the Unified Model Librarian, NWP-Division, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, Berkshire, RG12 2SX
80. Stephens, G. L., Tsay, S.-C., Stackhouse, J. P. W. and Flatau, P. J. 1990 The relevance of the microphysical and radiative properties of cirrus clouds to climate and climatic feedback. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1742-1753
81. Sun, Z. and Shine, K. P. 1994 Studies of the radiative properties of ice and mixed-phase clouds. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 120, 111-138
82. Sundqvist, H. 1978 A parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 104, 677-690
83. Sundqvist, H., Berge, E. and Kristjànsson, J. E. 1989 Condensation and cloud parameterization studies with a mesoscale numerical weather prediction model. Mon. Weather Rev., 117" 1641-1657
84. Taylor, K. E. and Penner, J. E. 1994 Response of the climate system to atmospheric aerosols and greenhouse gases. Nature, 369, 734-737
85. Thorpe, A. D. and Mason, B. J. 1966 The evaporation of ice spheres and ice crystals. Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 17, 541-551
86. Tian, L. and Curry, J. A. 1989 Cloud overlap statistics. J. Geophys. Res., 94, 9925-9935
87. Tiedtke, M. 1988 'Parameterization of cumulus convection in large-scale models'. Pp. 375-431 in Physically Based Modelling and Simulation of Climate and Climatic Change - Part I, M. Schlesinger Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers 1993 Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 3040-3061 1996 An extension of cloud-radiation parameterization in the ECMWF model: the representation of subgrid-scale variations of optical depth. Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 745-750
88. Tiedtke, M. 1988 'Parameterization of cumulus convection in large-scale models'. Pp. 375-431 in Physically Based Modelling and Simulation of Climate and Climatic Change - Part I, M. Schlesinger Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers 1993 Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 3040-3061 1996 An extension of cloud-radiation parameterization in the ECMWF model: the representation of subgrid-scale variations of optical depth. Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 745-750
89. Tiedtke, M. 1988 'Parameterization of cumulus convection in large-scale models'. Pp. 375-431 in Physically Based Modelling and Simulation of Climate and Climatic Change - Part I, M. Schlesinger Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers 1993 Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 3040-3061 1996 An extension of cloud-radiation parameterization in the ECMWF model: the representation of subgrid-scale variations of optical depth. Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 745-750
90. Tripoli, G. J. and Cotton, W. R. 1980 A numerical investigation of several factors contributing to the observed variable intensity of deep convection over south Florida. J. Appl. Meteorol., 19, 1037-1063
91. Warren, S. G., Hahn, C. J., London, J., Chervin, R. M. and Jenne, R. L. 1986 'Global distribution of total cloud cover and cloud type amounts over land'. Tech. Note TN-273+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA 1988 'Global distribution of total cloud cover and cloud type amounts over the ocean'. Tech. Note TN-317+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA
92. Warren, S. G., Hahn, C. J., London, J., Chervin, R. M. and Jenne, R. L. 1986 'Global distribution of total cloud cover and cloud type amounts over land'. Tech. Note TN-273+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA 1988 'Global distribution of total cloud cover and cloud type amounts over the ocean'. Tech. Note TN-317+STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, USA
93. Welch, R. M. and Wielicki, B. A. 1984 Stratocumulus cloud field reflected fluxes: the effect of cloud shape. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 3085-3103
94. Weng, F. and Grody, N. C. 1994 Retrieval of cloud liquid water using the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I). J. Geophys. Res., 99, 25535-25551