Agricultural soils as a sink to mitigate CO2 emissions

Soil Use and Management

Volumn 13, Issue 4 SUPPL., 1997, Pages 230-244

  Paustian, K ^a   Andren O ^b   Janzen, H H ^c   Lal, R ^d   Smith, P ^e   Tian, G ^f   Tiessen, H ^g   Van Noordwijk, M ^h   Woomer, P L ^f  

^a Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences   (United States)

^b SWEDISH UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES   (Sweden)

^c AGRICULTURE AND AGRI FOOD CANADA   (Canada)

^d OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e ROTHAMSTED RESEARCH   (United Kingdom)

^f Carolyn House ^*  (Kenya)

^g WORLD AGROFORESTRY CENTRE ICRAF   (Kenya)

^h ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre Bogor   (Indonesia)

Author keywords

Agricultural soils; Carbon; Carbon dioxide; Emission; Retention

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL SOIL; CARBON EMISSIONS; EMISSIONS CONTROL; SOIL MANAGEMENT;

EID: 0031414815     PISSN: 02660032     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.1997.tb00594.x     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. AGBOOLA, A.A. 1981. The effects of different soil tillage and management practices on the physical and chemical properties of soils and maize yield in a rainforest zone of western Nigeria. Agronomy Journal 73, 247-251.
2. AINA, P.O. 1979. Soil changes resulting from long-term management practices in western Nigeria. Soil Science Society of America Journal 43, 173-177.
3. ANDERSON, D.W. & COLEMAN, D.C. 1985. The dynamics of organic matter in grassland soils. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 40, 211-216.
4. ANDRÉN, O. & PAUSTIAN, K. 1987. Barley straw decomposition in the field - a comparison of models. Ecology 68, 1190-1200.
5. ANDRÉN, O., LINBERG, T. et al. 1990. Organic carbon and nitrogen flows. In: Ecology of Arable Land-Organisms, Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling (eds O. Andrén, T. Lindberg, K. Paustian & T. Rosswall), Ecological Bulletin 40, 85-126.
6. ANDRÉN, O., RAJKAI, K. & KÄTTERER, T. 1993. Water and temperature dynamics in a clay soil under winter wheat-influence on straw decomposition and N immobilization. Biology and Fertility of Soils 15, 1-8.
7. ARMENTANO, T.V. 1980. Drainage of organic soils as a factor in the world carbon cycle. Bioscience 30, 825-830.
8. ARMENTANO, T.V. & MENGES, E.S. 1986. Patterns of change in the carbon balance of organic soil-wetlands of the temperate zone. Ecology 74, 755-774.
9. 13C abundance in maize fields. Journal of Soil Science 41, 587-591.
10. BARBER, S.A. 1979. Corn residue management and soil organic matter. Agronomy Journal 71, 625-627.
11. BARNWELL, T.O., JACKSON, R.B. et al. 1992. An approach to assessment of management impacts on agricultural soil carbon. Water Air and Soil Pollution 64, 423-435.
12. BEARE, M.H., CABRERA, M.L., HENDRIX, P.F. & COLEMAN, D.C. 1994a. Aggregate-protected and unprotected pools of organic matter in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58, 787-795.
13. BEARE, M.H., HENDRK, P.F. & COLEMAN, D.C. 1994b. Water-stable agggregates and organic matter fractions in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58, 777-786.
14. BLOOM, P.R., SCHUM, W.M., MALZER, G.L., NELSON, W.W. & EVANS, S.D. 1982. Effect of N fertilizer management of organic matter in Minnesota mollisols. Agronomy Journal 74, 161-163.
15. BOUWMAN, A.F. 1990. Global distribution of the major soils and land cover types. In: Soils and the Greenhouse Effect (ed. A.F. Bouwman), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., pp. 33-59.
16. BREMER, E., JANZEN, H.H. & JOHNSTON, A.M. 1994. Sensitivity of total, light fraction and mineralizable organic matter to management practices in a Lethbridge soil. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 74, 131-138.
17. BRUSSAARD, L., HAUSER, S. & TIAN, G. 1993. Soil faunal activity in relation to the sustainability of agricultural systems in the humid tropics. In: Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Sustainability of Tropical Agriculture (eds K. Mulongoy & R. Merckx), J. Wiley-Sayce Co., Chichester, pp. 241-256.
18. BURKE, I.C., LAUENROTH, W.K. & COFFIN, D.P. 1995. Recovery of soil organic matter and N mineralization in semiarid grasslands: Implications for the Conservation Reserve Program. Ecological Applications 5, 793-801.
19. CAMPBELL, C.A., LAFOND, G.P., MOULIN, A.P., TOWNLEY-SMITH, L. & ZENTNER, R.P. 1997. Crop production and soil organic matter in long-term crop rotations in the sub-humid northern Great Plains of Canada. In: Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems: Long-Term Experiments in North America (eds E.A. Paul, K. Paustian, E.T. Elliott & C.V Cole), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 297-315.
20. CAMPBELL, C.A. & ZENTNER, R.P. 1997. Crop production and soil organic matter in long-term crop rotations in the semi-arid northern Great Plains of Canada. In: Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems: Long-Term Experiments in North America (eds E.A. Paul, K. Paustian, E.T. Elliott & C.V. Cole), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 317-334.
21. CASENAVE, A. & VALENTIN, C. 1989. Les etats de surface de la zone sahielienne. Influence sur l'infiltration. ORSTOM Paris, sKr. Didactiques.
22. CERRI, C.C., VOLKOFF, B. & ANDREAUX, F. 1991. Nature and behaviour of organic matter in soils under natural forest, and after deforestation, burning and cultivation, near Manaus. Forest Ecology and Management 38, 247-257.
23. CHAN, K.Y., ROBERTS, W.P. & HEENAN, D.P. 1992. Organic carbon and associated soil properties of a red earth after 10 years of rotation under different stubble and tillage practices. Australian Journal of Soil Research 30, 71-83.
24. COLE, V., CERRI, C. et al. 1996. Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. In: Climate Change 1995. Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses. IPCC Working Group II. Cambridge Univ. Press., pp. 745-771.
25. COX, T.S., SHROYER, J.P., BEN-HUI, L., SEARS, R.G. & MARTIN, T.J. 1988. Genetic improvement in agronomic traits of hard red winter wheat cultivars from 1919 to 1987. Crop Science 28, 756-760.
26. DALAL, R.C. 1989. Long-term effects of no-tillage, crop residue, and nitrogen application on properties of a Vertisol. Soil Science Society of America Journal 53, 1511-1515.
27. DALAL, R.C. & BRIDGE, B.J. 1996. Aggregation and organic matter storage in sub-humid and semi-arid soils. In: Structure and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils. Advances in Soil Science (eds M.R. Carter & B.A. Stewart) CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 263-307.
28. DAVIDSON, E.A. & ACKERMAN, I.L. 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously unfilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20, 161-164.
29. DICK, W.A. 1983. Organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and pH in soil profiles as affected by tillage intensity. Soil Science Society of America Journal 47, 102-107.
30. DICK, W.A., VAN DOREN, D.M., Jr., TRIPLETT, G.B., Jr., & HENRY, J.E. 1986a. Influence of long-term tillage and rotation combinations on crop yields and selected soil parameters. I. Results obtained for a Mollic Ochraqualf soil. Research Bulletin 1180, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio.
31. DICK, W.A., VAN DOREN, D.M., JR., TRIPLETT, G.B., Jr., & HENRY, J.E. 1986b. Influence of long-term tillage and rotation combinations on crop yields and selected soil parameters. II. Results obtained for a Typic Fragiudalf soil. Research Bulletin 1181, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio.
32. DIXON, R.K., BROWN, S., HOUGHTON, R.A., SOLOMON, A.M., TREXLER, M.C. & WISNIEWSKI, J., 1994. Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems. Science 263, 185-190.
33. DOE. 1994. The Climate Change Action Plan: Technical Supplement. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Office of Policy, Planning, and Program Evaluation. Washington, D.C.
34. DONIGIAN, A.S., BARNWELL, T.O., Jr. et al. 1994. Assessment of Alternative Management Practices and Policies Affecting Soil Carbon in Agroecosystems of the Central United States. U.S. EPA Report EPA/6004-94/067.
35. DORAN, J.W. 1987. Microbial biomass and mineralizable nitrogen distributions in no-tillage and plowed soils. Biology and Fertility of Soils 5, 68-75.
36. DORAN, J.W., MIELKE, L.N. & STAMATIADIS, S. 1988. Microbial activity and N cycling as regulated by soil water-filled pore space. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Soil Tillage Research Organization, Paper No. 132, ISTRO, July 11-15, 1988, Edinburgh.
37. DORMAAR, J.F. & SMOLIAK, S. 1985. Recovery of vegetative cover and soil organic matter during revegetation of abandoned farmland in a semi-arid climate. Journal of Range Management 38, 487-491.
38. DUMANSKI, J., DESJARDINS, R.L., et al. 1998. Possibilities for future carbon sequestration in Canadian agriculture in relation to land use changes. Climatic Change (accepted).
39. DYAL, R.S., SMITH, F.B. & ALLISON, R.V. 1939. The decomposition of organic matter in soils at different initial pH. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy 31, 841-850.
40. EDEN, M.J., FURLEY, P.A., MCGREGOR, D.F.M., MILLIKEN, W., & RATTER, J.A. 1991. Effect of forest clearance and burning on soil properties in northern Roraima, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 38, 283-290.
41. ELLIOTT, E.T. 1986. Aggregate structure and carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in native and cultivated soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 50, 627-633.
42. ELLIOTT, E.T. & COLEMAN, D.C. 1988. Let the soil work for us. Ecological Bulletins 39, 23-32.
43. ERICKSON, H.E. & KELLER, M. 1997. Tropical land use change and soil emissions of nitrogen oxides. Soil Use and Management 13, 278-287.
44. ESWARAN, H., VAN DEN BERG, E. & REICH, P.F. 1993. Organic carbon in soils of the world. Soil Science Society of America Journal 57, 192-194.
45. FEARNSIDE, P.M. 1993. Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: The effect of population and land tenure. Ambio 22, 537-545.
46. FELLER, C. 1993. Organic inputs, soil organic matter and functional soil organic compartments in low-activity clay soils in tropical zones. In: Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Sustainability of Tropical Agriculture, (eds K. Mulongoy & R. Merckx), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 77-88.
47. FELLER, C., ALBRECHT, A. & TESSIER, D. 1996. Aggregation and organic matter storage in Kaolinitic and smectitic tropical soils. In: Structures and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils. Advances in Soil Science (eds M.R. Carter & B.A. Stewart), CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 309-360.
48. FERNANDES, E.C.M., MOTAVALLI, M.P., CASTILLA, C. & MUKURUMBIRA, L. 1997. Management control of soil organic matter dynamics in tropical land-use systems. Geoderma 79, 49-67.
49. FISHER, M.J., RAO, I.M. et al. 1994. Carbon storage by introduced deep rooted grasses in the South American savannas. Nature 371, 236-238.
50. FOG, K. 1988. The effect of added nitrogen on the rate of decomposition of organic matter. Biological Reviews 63, 433-462.
51. GASTON, G.G., KOLCHUGINA, T., & VINSON, T.S. 1993. Potential effect of notill management on carbon in the agricultural soils of the former Soviet Union Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 45, 295-309.
52. GEBHART, D.L., JOHNSON, H.B., MAYEUX, H.S. & POLLEY, H.W. 1994. The CRP increases soil organic carbon. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 49, 488-492.
53. GLENDINING, M.J. & POWLSON, D.S. 1995. The effects of long continued applications of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer on soil organic nitrogen-A review. In: Soil Management - Experimental Basis for Sustainability and Environmental Quality. Advances m Soil Science (eds R. Lal & B.A. Stewart), CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 385-446.
54. GOUYON, A., DE FORESTA, H. & LEVANG, P. 1993. Does 'jungle rubber' deserve its name? An analysis of rubber agroforestry systems in southeast Sumatra. Agroforestry Systems 22, 181-206.
55. GROFFMAN P.M. 1984. Nitrification and denitrification in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 49, 329-334.
56. HAAS, H.J., EVANS, C.E. & MILES, E.F. 1957. Nitrogen and carbon changes in Great Plains soils as influenced by cropping and soil treatments. Technical Bulletin No. 1164 USDA, State Agricultural Experiment Stations.
57. HAVLIN, J.L., KISSEL, D.E., MADDUX, L.D., CLAASSEN, M.M. & LONG, J.H. 1990. Crop rotation and tillage effects on soil organic carbon and nitrogen. Soil Science Society of America Journal 54, 448-452.
58. HAYNES, R.J., SWIFT, R.S. & STEPHEN, R.C. 1991. Influence of mixed cropping rotations (pasture-arable) on organic matter content, water stable aggregation and clod porosity in a group of soils. Soil and Tillage Research 19, 77-81.
59. HOUGHTON, R.A. & SKOLE, D.L. 1990. Carbon. In: The Earth as Transformed by Human Action (eds B.L. Turner, II, W.C. Clark, R.W. Kates, J.F. Richards, J.T. Mathews & W.B. Meyer), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
60. HOUGHTON, R.A. 1994. The world-wide extent of land-use change. Bioscience 44, 305-313.
61. IKE, I.F. 1986. Soil and crop responses to different cultural practices in a ferruginous soil in the Nigerian Savanna. Soil Tillage Research 6, 261-272.
62. ISMAIL, I., BLEVINS, R.L. & FRYE, W.W. 1994. Long-term no-tillage effects on soil properties and continuous corn yields. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58, 193-198.
63. JANSSON, S.L. 1975. Bördighetsstudier för Markvård. Försök i Malmöhus län 1957-74. (Long-term soil fertility studies. Experiments in Malmöhus County 1957-74) Journal of the Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, Supplement 10, Stockholm, 60 pp.
64. JASTROW, J.D. 1996. Soil aggregate formation and the accrual of particulate and mineral-associated organic matter. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 665-676.
65. JENKINSON, D.S. 1971. The accumulation of organic matter in soil left uncultivated. Rothamsted Experiment Station Annual Report for 1970, Part 2, pp. 113-137.
66. JENKINSON, D.S. & RAYNER, J.H. 1977. The turnover of soil organic matter in some of the Rothamsted classical experiments. Soil Science 123, 298-305.
67. JENKINSON, D.S., BRADBURY, N.J. & COLEMAN, K. 1994. How the Rothamsted Classical Experiments have been used to develop and test models of the turnover of carbon and nitrogen in soil. In: Long-term experiments in Agricultural and Ecological Sciences, (eds R.A. Leigh & A.E. Johnston), CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, pp. 117-138.
68. JOHNSTON, A.E. 1973. The effects of ley and arable cropping systems on the amounts of soil organic matter in the Rothamsted and Woburn Ley-Arable Experiments. Rothamsted Report for 1972, Part 2, pp. 131-59.
69. JUO, A.S.R. & LAL, R. 1979. Nutrient profile in a tropical Afisol under conventional and no-till systems. Soil Science 127, 168-13.
70. JUO, A.S.R. & KANG, B.T. 1989. Nutrient effects of modification of shifting cultivation in West Africa. In: Mineral Nutrients in Tropical Forest and Savanna Ecosystems (ed. J. Proctor), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 289-300.
71. KANG, B.T. 1993. Changes in soil chemical properties and crop performance with continuous cropping on an Entisol in the humid tropics. In: Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Sustainability of Tropical Agriculture, (eds K. Mulongoy & R. Merckx), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
72. KANG, B.T., WILSON, G.F. & SIPKENS, L. 1981. Alley cropping maize (Zea mays L.) and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala Lam) in Southern Nigeria. Plant and Soil 63, 165-179.
73. KANG, B.T., GICHURU, M., HULUGALLE, N. & SWIFT, M.J. 1991. Soil constraints for sustainable upland crop production in humid and sub-humid West Africa. In: Soil Constraints on Sustainable Plant Production in the Tropics. Proceedings of the 24th International Symposium on Tropical Agriculture Research. Tropical Agriculture Research Series 24, Kyoto, Japan, August 14-16, 1990, pp. 101-112.
74. KARLEN, D.L. 1998. Impact of CRP on soil quality indicators. Journal of Proauction Agriculture (in press).
75. KERN, J.S. & JOHNSON, M.G. 1993. Conservation tillage impacts on national soil and atmospheric carbon levels. Soil Science Society of America Journal 57, 200-210.
76. KLADIVKO, E.J., GRIFFITH, D.R. & MANNERING, J.V. 1986. Conservation tillage effects on soil properties and yield of corn and soya beans in Indiana. Soil and Tillage Research 8, 277-287.
77. KOFOED, A.D. & NEMMING, O. 1976. Fertilizers and manure on sandy and loamy soils. Annales Agronomiques 27, 583-610.
78. KOLCHUGINA, T.P. & VINSON, T.S. 1996. Management options to conserve and sequester carbon in the agricultural sector of the former Soviet Union. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies 1, 1-22.
79. LAL, R., WILSON, G.F. & OKIGBO, B.N. 1979. Changes in properties of an alfisol produced by various crop covers. Soil Science 127, 377-380.
80. LAL, R. 1986. Soil surface management in the tropics for intensive land use and high and sustained production. Advances in Soil Science, Volume 5, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 1-109.
81. LAL, R. 1989. Conservation tillage for sustainable agriculture: Tropic vs. temperate environments. Advances in Agronomy 42, 84-191.
82. LAVELLE, P., BLANCHART, E., MARTIN, A., SPAIN, A.V. & MARTIN, S. 1992. Impact of soil fauna on properties of soils in the humid tropics In: Myths and Science of Soils of the Tropics, (eds R. Lal & P. Sanchez), Soil Science Society of America Special Publication No. 20, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 157-185.
83. LEE, J.J., PHILLIPS, D.L. & LIU, R. 1993.The effect of trends in tillage practices on erosion and carbon content of soils in the U.S. corn belt. Water Air and Soil Pollution 70, 389-401.
84. 2 flux through management of croplands in the U.S. Climatic Change (accepted).
85. LI, Z. & ZHAO, Q.G. 1998. Carbon dioxide fluxes and potential mitigation in agriculture and forestry of tropical and subtropical China. Climatic Change (accepted).
86. LUGO, A.E., SANCHEZ, M.J. & BROWN, S. 1986. Land use and organic carbon content of some subtropical soils. Plant and Soil 96, 185-196.
87. LUGO, A.E. & BROWN, S. 1993. Management of tropical soils as sinks or sources of atmospheric carbon. Plant and Soil 149, 27-41.
88. MANN, L.K. 1986. Changes in soil carbon storage after cultivation. Soil Science 142, 279-288.
89. MBAKAYA, D.S., BLACKBURN, W.H., SKOVLIN, J.M. & CHILD, R.D. 1988. Infiltration and sediment production of a bushed grassland as influenced by livestock grazing systems, Buchuma, Kenya. Tropical Agriculture 65, 99-105.
90. MELILLO J.M., ABER, J.D. & MURATORE, J.F. 1982. Nitrogen and lignin control of hardwood leaf litter decomposition dynamics. Ecology 63, 621-626.
91. METHERELL, A.K., HARDING, L.A., COLE, C.V. & PARTON, W.J. 1993. Century Soil Organic Matter Model Environment. Agroecosystem Version 4.0. Great Plains System Research Unit. Technical Report No. 4, USDA-ARS, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
92. MONNIER, G. 1965. Action des matieres organiques sur la stabilite structurale des soils. Annales Agronomiques (Paris) 16, 471-534.
93. MOORMANN, F.R., LAL, R. & JUO, A.S.R. 1975. Soils of IITA. IITA Techical Bulletin 3, IITA, Ibadan.
94. MYERS, R.J.K., VAN NOORDWIJK, M. & VITYAKON, P. 1997. Synchrony of nutrient release and plant demand: Soil environment and farmer management options. In: Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition (eds G. Cadisch & K.E. Giller), CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, pp. 215-229.
95. NEILL, C., MELILLO, J.M. et al. 1997. Soil carbon and nitrogen stocks following forest clearing for pasture in the southwestern Brazilian Amazon. Ecological Applications 7, 1216-1225.
96. NILSSON, L.G. 1986. Data of yield and soil analysis in the long-term soil fertility experiments. Journal of the Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry, Supplement 18, 32-70.
97. NILSSON, S. & SCHOPFHAUSER, W. 1995. The carbon-sequestration potential of a global afforestation program. Climatic Change 30, 267-293.
98. NYE, P.H. & GREENLAND, D.J. 1960. The soil under shifting cultivation. Technical Communication 51, Commonwealth Bureau of Soils, Harpenden.
99. OADES, J.M. 1984. Soil organic matter and structural stability: Mechanisms and implications for management. Plant and Soil 49, 37-62.
100. OKIGBO, B.N. 1990. Sustainable agricultural systems in tropical Africa. In: Sustainable Agricultural Systems (eds C.A. Edwards, R. Lal, P. Madden, R.H. Miller & G. House), Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 323-352.
101. PARTON, W.J., SCHIMEL, D.S., COLE, C.V. & OJIMA, D.S. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51, 1173-1179.
102. PAUSTIAN, K., ANDRÉN, O. et al. 1990. Carbon and nitrogen budgets of four agroecosystems with annual and perennial crops, with and without N fertilization. Journal of Applied Ecology 27, 60-84.
103. PAUSTIAN, K., PARTON, W.J. & PERSSON, J. 1992. Modeling soil organic matter in organic-amended and nitrogen-fertilized long-term plots. Soil Science Society of America Journal 56, 476-488.
104. PAUSTIAN, K., COLLINS, H.P. & PAUL, E.A. 1997a. Management controls on soil carbon. In: Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems: Long-Term Experiments in North America (eds E.A. Paul, K. Paustian, E.T. Elliott & C.V. Cole), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 15-49.
105. PAUSTIAN, K., AGREN, G. & BOSATTA, E. 1997b. Modeling litter quality effects on decomposition and soil organic matter dynamics. In: Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition (eds G. Cadisch & K.E. Giller), CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, pp. 313-336.
106. PETERSON, G.A. & WESTFALL, D.G. 1997. Management of dryland agroecosystems in the Central Great Plains of Colorado. In: Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems: Long-Term Experiments in North America (eds E.A. Paul, K. Paustian, E.T. Elliott & C.V. Cole), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 371-380.
107. PETERSON, G.A., HALVORSON, A.D., HAVLIN, J.L., JONES, O.R., LYON, D.J. & TANAKA, D.L. 1998. Reduced tillage and increasing cropping intensity in the Great Plains conserves soil carbon. Soil Tillage Research (accepted).
108. POST, W.M., EMANUEL, W.R., ZINKE, P.J. & STANGENBERGER, A.G. 1982. Soil carbon pools and world life zones. Nature 298, 156-159.
109. POST, W.M., PENG, T.-H., EMANUEL, W.R., KING, A.W., DALE, V.H. & DE ANGELIS, D.L. 1990. The global carbon cycle. American Scientist 78, 310-326.
110. POTTER, K.N., TORBET, H.A., JONES, O.R., MATOCHA, J.E., MORRISON, J.E., JR. & UNGER, P.W. 1998. Distribution and amount of soil organic carbon in long-term management systems in Texas. Soil Tillage Research (accepted)
111. POWLSON, D.S. & JENKINSON, D.S. 1981. A comparison of the organic matter, biomass, adenosine triphosphate and mineralizable nitrogen contents of ploughed and direct-drilled soils. Journal of Agricultural Science, UK 97, 713-721.
112. RICHARDS, K.R. 1992. Policy and research implications of recent carbon-sequestering analysis. In: Economic Issues in Global Climate Change: Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources (eds J.M. Reilly & M. Anderson), Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 288-308.
113. RUSSELL, J.S. 1960. Soil fertility changes in long-term experimental plots at Kybybolite, South Australia. I. Changes in pH, total nitrogen, organic carbon and bulk density. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 11, 902-926.
114. SANCHEZ, P.A., GICHURU, M.P. & KATZ, L.B. 1982. Organic matter in major soils of the temperate and tropical regions. Transactions XIIth International Congress Soil Science, New Delhi, India I, 99-114.
115. SANCHEZ, P.A., PALM, C.A. & SMYTH, T.J. 1990. Approaches to mitigate tropical deforestation by sustainable soil management practices. In: Soils on a Warmer Earth, (eds H.W. Scharpenseel, M. Schomaker & A. Ayoub), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 211-220.
116. SAUERBECK, D. 1992. Funktionen und Bedeutung der Organischen Substanzen für die Bodenfruchtbarkeit-ein Überlick. Bodennutzung und Bodenfruchtbarkeit, Band 4 Humushaushalt, Berichte über Landwirtschaft, 206. Sonderheft, Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg, pp. 13-29.
117. SCHLESINGER, W.H. 1977. Carbon balance in terrestrial detritus. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8, 51-81.
118. SCHLESINGER, W.H. 1986. Changes in soil carbon storage and associated properties with disturbance and recovery. In: The Changing Carbon Cycle. A Global Analysts, (eds J.R. Trabalka & D.E. Reichle), Springer, New York, pp. 194-220.
119. SHARPLEY, A.N. & WILLIAMS, J.R. 1990. EPIC-Erosion/productivity impact calculator. U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 1768, Washington, DC.
120. SKOLE, D.L., CHOMENTOWSKI, W.H., SALAS, W.A. & NOBRE, A.D. 1994. Physical and human dimensions of deforestation in Amazonia. Bioscience 44, 314-322.
121. SMITH, P., POWLSON, D.S. & GLENDINING, M.J. 1996a. Establishing a European soil organic matter network (SOMNET). In: Evaluation of Soil Organic Matter Models. NATO ASI Series I, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 138, (eds D.S. Powlson, P. Smith & J.U. Smith), Springer, Berlin, pp. 81-98.
122. SMITH, P., SMITH, J.U. & POWLSON, D.S. (Eds). 1996b. Soil Organic Matter Network (SOMNET): 1996 Model and Experimental Metadata. GCTE Report No 7, GCTE Focus 3 Office, Wallingford, UK. 255pp.
123. SMITH, P., POWLSON, D.S., GLENDINING, M.J. & SMITH, J.U. 1997a. Potential for carbon sequestration in European soils: preliminary estimates for five scenarios using results from long-term experiments. Global Change Biology 3, 67-79.
124. SMITH, P., POWLSON, D.S., GLENDINING, M.J. & SMITH, J.U. 1997b. Opportunities and limitations for C sequestration in European agricultural soils through changes in management. Advances in Soil Science (in press).
125. SMITH P., GLENDINING, M.J., SMITH, J.U., & POWLSON, D.S. 1998. Preliminary estimates of the potential for carbon mitigation in European soils through no-till farming. Global Change Biology (in press).
126. SOMBROEK, W.G., NACHTERGAELE, F.O. & HEBEL, A. 1993. Amounts, dynamics and sequestering of carbon in tropical and subtropical soils. Ambio 22, 417-426.
127. SOMMERFELDT, T.G., CHANG, C & ENTZ, T. 1988. Long-term annual manure applications increase soil organic matter and nitrogen, and decrease carbon to nitrogen ratio. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51, 1668-1672.
128. SOWDEN, F.J. & ATKINSON, H.J. 1968. Effect of long-term additions of various organic amendments on the organic matter of a clay and a sand. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 48, 323-330.
129. STOORVOGEL, J.J., SMALING, E.M.A. & JANSSEN, B.H. 1993. Calculating soil nutrient balances in Africa at different scales. I. Supra-national scale. Fertilizer Research 35, 227-235.
130. SUNDQUIST, E. 1993. The global carbon dioxide budget. Science 259, 934-941.
131. SWIFT, M.J., HEAL, O.W. & ANDERSON, J.M. 1979. Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Blackwell, Oxford. 372pp.
132. THEANDER, O. & ÅMAN, P. 1984. Anatomical and chemical characteristics in straw and other fibrous by products as feed. In: Developments in Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 14, (eds F. Sundstol & E. Owen), Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam.
133. TIAN, G., KANG, B.T. & BRUSSAARD, L. 1992. Biological effects of plant residues with contrasting chemical compositions under humid tropical conditions. Decomposition and nutrient release. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 1051-1060.
134. TIESSEN, H. & SANTOS, M.C.D. 1989. Variability of C, N, and P content of a tropical semiarid soil as affected by soil genesis, erosion and land clearing. Plant and Soil 119, 337-341.
135. TIESSEN, H., SALCEDO, I.H. & SAMPAIO, E.V.S.B. 1992. Nutrient and soil organic matter dynamics under shifting cultivation in semi-arid northeastern Brazil. Agriculture Ecosystem ana Environment 38, 139-151.
136. TIESSEN, H., FELLER, C., SAMPAIO, E.V.S.B. & GARIN, P. 1998. Carbon sequestration and turnover in semiarid savannas and dry forest. Climatic Change (accepted).
137. TIMMERMANN, F. & WELTE, E. 1976. Effets de la fumure sur les rendements et l'absorption des éléments minéraux par les cultures dans l'essai a long terme du champ «E»de Göttingen. Annales Agronomiques 27, 703-719.
138. TYSON, K.C., ROBERTS, D.H., CLEMENT, C.R., & GARWOOD, E.A. 1990. Comparison of crop yields and soil conditions during 30 years under annual tillage or grazed pasture. Journal of Agricultural Science, UK 115, 29-40.
139. UHLEN, G. 1991. Long-term effects of fertilizers, manure, straw and crop rotation on total- N and total-C in soil. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica 41, 119-127.
140. VAN DIJK, H. 1982. Survey of Dutch soil organic matter research with regard to humification and degradation rates in arable land. In: Land Use Seminar on Soil Degradation, Wageningen, October 1980. (eds D. Boels, D.B. Davies & A.E. Johnston), Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 133-143.
141. VAN NOORDWIJK, M., CERRI, C., WOOMER, P.L., NUGROHO, K. & BERNOUX, M. 1997. Soil carbon dynamics in the humid tropical forest zone. In: The Management of Carbon In Tropical Sails Under Global Change: Science, Practice and Policy, (eds E.T. Elliott, J. Kimble & M.J. Swift), Geoderma 79, 187-225.
142. VLEK, P.L.G. 1990. The role of fertilizers in sustaining agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Fertilizer Research 26, 327-339.
143. WELTE, E. & TIMMERMANN, F. 1976. Fertilité du sol et bilan de l'azote dans l'essai permanent de fumure «Ewiger Roggenbau» (culture continue de seigle) a Halle/Saale. Annales Agronomiques 27, 721-742.
144. 2 levels in the atmosphere. Nature 273, 40-41.
145. WILSON, G.F., LAL, R. & OKIGBO, B.N. 1982. Effects of cover crops on soil structure and on yield of subsequent arable crops grown under strip tillage on an eroded Alfisol. Soil Tillage Research 2, 233-250.
146. WOOMER, P.L., MARTIN, A., ALBRECHT, A., RESCK, D.V.S., & SCHARPENSEEL, H.W. 1994. The importance and management of soil organic matter in the tropics. In: The Biological Management of Tropical Soil Fertility, (eds P.L. Woomer & M.J. Swift), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester., pp. 47-80.
147. ZIELKE, R.C. & CHRISTENSEN, D.R. 1986. Organic carbon and nitrogen changes in soil under selected cropping systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal 50, 363-367.