Perspectives on the mortality decline in London, 1860-1920

London Journal

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 123-141

  Luckin, Bill ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOGRAPHIC HISTORY; HEALTH STATUS; HISTORICAL STUDY; MORTALITY DECLINE; NINETEENTH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY;

UK, ENGLAND, LONDON;

EID: 0031411152     PISSN: 03058034     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/ldn.1997.22.2.123     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
2. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
3. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
4. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
5. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
6. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
7. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
8. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
9. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
10. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
11. The original, co-authored findings were contained in T. R. McKeown and R. G. Brown, 'Medical Evidence Relating to English Population Changes in the Eighteenth Century', Population Studies, 9 (1955), 115-41: T. R. McKeown and R. G. Record, 'Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 16 (1962), 94-122 and T. R. McKeown, R. G. Brown and R. G. Record, 'An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe', Population Studies, 27 (1972), 345-82. The larger, 'global' argument was developed in T. R. McKeown, The Moderen Rise of Population (1976). One of the first articles to interrogate the McKeownite paradigm was R. Woods, 'Mortality and Sanitary Conditions in the "Best Governed City in the World": Birmingham, 1870-1910', Journal of Historical Geography, 4 (1978), 35-56. See, also, the contributions to R. Woods and J. Woodward (eds.), Urban Disease and Mortality in Nineteenth Century England (1984) and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health', Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-38: B.W. Benson, 'Mortality Variation in the North of England, 1851-1910', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1980) and G. Mooney, 'The Geography of Mortality Decline in Nineteenth Century London', (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1994). Subsequent developments are summarized in J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 9-14 and B. Luckin and G. Mooney, 'Urban History and Historical Epidemiology: The Case of London, 1860-1920', Urban History, 24 (1997), 38-42.
12. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
13. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
14. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
15. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
16. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
17. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
18. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
19. See, for example, R. Higgs, 'Cycles and Trends of Mortality in Eighteen Large American Cities, 1871-1900', Explorations in Econometric History, 16 (1979), 381-408: R. Higgs and D. Booth, 'Mortality Differentials within Large American Cities in 1890', Human Ecology, 7 (1979), 353-70: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins-Gardner, 'Public Measures and Mortality in U.S. Cities in the Late Nineteenth Century', Human Ecology, 6 (1978), 27-53: G. A. Condran and E. Crimmins, 'Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900', Journal of Historical Geography, 6 (1980), 179-202: G. A. Condran and R. A. Cheney, 'Mortality Trends in Philadelphia: Age- and Cause-Specific Death Rates 1870-1930', Demography, 19 (1982), 97-123: R. A. Meckel, 'Immigration, Mortality and Population Growth in Boston 1840-1880', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xv (1985), 393-417: E. Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return on Investment in Public Health, 1880-1920', Journal of Economic History, xxxiv ( 1974), 392-419: and C. Rosen, 'Infrastructural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Cities: A Conceptual Framework', Journal of Urban History, 12 (1986), 211-56.
20. R. J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830-1910 (Oxford, 1987): R. Spree, Soziale Ungleichheit vor Krankheit und Tod (Gottingen, 1981): J. C. Brown, 'Coping with Crisis: The Diffusion of Water Works in Late Nineteenth Century German Towns', Journal of Economic History, xlviii (1988), 307-18 and idem, 'Public Reform for Private Gain? The Case of Investment in Sanitary Infrastructure: Germany 1880-1887', Urban Studies, 26 (1989), 2-12.
21. R. J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830-1910 (Oxford, 1987): R. Spree, Soziale Ungleichheit vor Krankheit und Tod (Gottingen, 1981): J. C. Brown, 'Coping with Crisis: The Diffusion of Water Works in Late Nineteenth Century German Towns', Journal of Economic History, xlviii (1988), 307-18 and idem, 'Public Reform for Private Gain? The Case of Investment in Sanitary Infrastructure: Germany 1880-1887', Urban Studies, 26 (1989), 2-12.
22. R. J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830-1910 (Oxford, 1987): R. Spree, Soziale Ungleichheit vor Krankheit und Tod (Gottingen, 1981): J. C. Brown, 'Coping with Crisis: The Diffusion of Water Works in Late Nineteenth Century German Towns', Journal of Economic History, xlviii (1988), 307-18 and idem, 'Public Reform for Private Gain? The Case of Investment in Sanitary Infrastructure: Germany 1880-1887', Urban Studies, 26 (1989), 2-12.
23. R. J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830-1910 (Oxford, 1987): R. Spree, Soziale Ungleichheit vor Krankheit und Tod (Gottingen, 1981): J. C. Brown, 'Coping with Crisis: The Diffusion of Water Works in Late Nineteenth Century German Towns', Journal of Economic History, xlviii (1988), 307-18 and idem, 'Public Reform for Private Gain? The Case of Investment in Sanitary Infrastructure: Germany 1880-1887', Urban Studies, 26 (1989), 2-12.
24. J. Soderberg, U. Jonsson and C. Persson, A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1991): T. Bengtsson and R. Ohlsson, 'Population and Economic Fluctuations in Sweden 1749-1914' in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Preindustrial Population Change (Stockholm 1984), 277-97: G. Fridlizius, 'The Mortality Decline in the First Phase of the Demographic Transition: Swedish Experiences', in T. Bengtsson et al (eds.), Preindustrial Population, 71-114 and idem 'The Deformation of Cohorts: Nineteenth Century Mortality Decline in a Generational Perspective', Scandinavian Economic History Review, 3 (1989), 3-17. This last article makes use of elements of cause-specific analysis.
25. J. Soderberg, U. Jonsson and C. Persson, A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1991): T. Bengtsson and R. Ohlsson, 'Population and Economic Fluctuations in Sweden 1749-1914' in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Preindustrial Population Change (Stockholm 1984), 277-97: G. Fridlizius, 'The Mortality Decline in the First Phase of the Demographic Transition: Swedish Experiences', in T. Bengtsson et al (eds.), Preindustrial Population, 71-114 and idem 'The Deformation of Cohorts: Nineteenth Century Mortality Decline in a Generational Perspective', Scandinavian Economic History Review, 3 (1989), 3-17. This last article makes use of elements of cause-specific analysis.
26. J. Soderberg, U. Jonsson and C. Persson, A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1991): T. Bengtsson and R. Ohlsson, 'Population and Economic Fluctuations in Sweden 1749-1914' in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Preindustrial Population Change (Stockholm 1984), 277-97: G. Fridlizius, 'The Mortality Decline in the First Phase of the Demographic Transition: Swedish Experiences', in T. Bengtsson et al (eds.), Preindustrial Population, 71-114 and idem 'The Deformation of Cohorts: Nineteenth Century Mortality Decline in a Generational Perspective', Scandinavian Economic History Review, 3 (1989), 3-17. This last article makes use of elements of cause-specific analysis.
27. J. Soderberg, U. Jonsson and C. Persson, A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1991): T. Bengtsson and R. Ohlsson, 'Population and Economic Fluctuations in Sweden 1749-1914' in T. Bengtsson, G. Fridlizius and R. Ohlsson (eds.), Preindustrial Population Change (Stockholm 1984), 277-97: G. Fridlizius, 'The Mortality Decline in the First Phase of the Demographic Transition: Swedish Experiences', in T. Bengtsson et al (eds.), Preindustrial Population, 71-114 and idem 'The Deformation of Cohorts: Nineteenth Century Mortality Decline in a Generational Perspective', Scandinavian Economic History Review, 3 (1989), 3-17. This last article makes use of elements of cause-specific analysis.
28. A useful bibliographical guide is included in C. A. Corsini and P. P. Viazzo (eds.), The Decline of Infant Mortality in Europe 1800-1950 (Unicef, Florence, 1993). On London see G. Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?: Seasonal Infant Mortality in London, 1870-1914', Journal of Historical Geography, 20 (1994), 158-74 and N. Williams and G. Mooney, 'Infant Mortality in an "Age of Great Cities": London and the English Provincial Cities Compared, c. 1840-1910', Continuity and Change, 9 (1994), 185-212.
29. A useful bibliographical guide is included in C. A. Corsini and P. P. Viazzo (eds.), The Decline of Infant Mortality in Europe 1800-1950 (Unicef, Florence, 1993). On London see G. Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?: Seasonal Infant Mortality in London, 1870-1914', Journal of Historical Geography, 20 (1994), 158-74 and N. Williams and G. Mooney, 'Infant Mortality in an "Age of Great Cities": London and the English Provincial Cities Compared, c. 1840-1910', Continuity and Change, 9 (1994), 185-212.
30. A useful bibliographical guide is included in C. A. Corsini and P. P. Viazzo (eds.), The Decline of Infant Mortality in Europe 1800-1950 (Unicef, Florence, 1993). On London see G. Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?: Seasonal Infant Mortality in London, 1870-1914', Journal of Historical Geography, 20 (1994), 158-74 and N. Williams and G. Mooney, 'Infant Mortality in an "Age of Great Cities": London and the English Provincial Cities Compared, c. 1840-1910', Continuity and Change, 9 (1994), 185-212.
31. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 193-5 and 351-7.
32. See here A. R. Omran, 'The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Quarterly, 49 (1971), 509-38 and idem, 'The Epidemiologic Transition Theory: A Preliminary Update', Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 29 (1983), 305-16. The larger context is outlined in R. Woods, Theoretical Population Geography (1982), 158-72: S. R. Johansson, 'The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality', Health Transition Review, 1 (1991), 36-98: and J-C. Chesnais, The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720-1984 (Oxford, 1992), Translated by E. and P. Kreager.
33. See here A. R. Omran, 'The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Quarterly, 49 (1971), 509-38 and idem, 'The Epidemiologic Transition Theory: A Preliminary Update', Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 29 (1983), 305-16. The larger context is outlined in R. Woods, Theoretical Population Geography (1982), 158-72: S. R. Johansson, 'The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality', Health Transition Review, 1 (1991), 36-98: and J-C. Chesnais, The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720-1984 (Oxford, 1992), Translated by E. and P. Kreager.
34. See here A. R. Omran, 'The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Quarterly, 49 (1971), 509-38 and idem, 'The Epidemiologic Transition Theory: A Preliminary Update', Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 29 (1983), 305-16. The larger context is outlined in R. Woods, Theoretical Population Geography (1982), 158-72: S. R. Johansson, 'The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality', Health Transition Review, 1 (1991), 36-98: and J-C. Chesnais, The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720-1984 (Oxford, 1992), Translated by E. and P. Kreager.
35. See here A. R. Omran, 'The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Quarterly, 49 (1971), 509-38 and idem, 'The Epidemiologic Transition Theory: A Preliminary Update', Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 29 (1983), 305-16. The larger context is outlined in R. Woods, Theoretical Population Geography (1982), 158-72: S. R. Johansson, 'The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality', Health Transition Review, 1 (1991), 36-98: and J-C. Chesnais, The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720-1984 (Oxford, 1992), Translated by E. and P. Kreager.
36. See here A. R. Omran, 'The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Quarterly, 49 (1971), 509-38 and idem, 'The Epidemiologic Transition Theory: A Preliminary Update', Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 29 (1983), 305-16. The larger context is outlined in R. Woods, Theoretical Population Geography (1982), 158-72: S. R. Johansson, 'The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality', Health Transition Review, 1 (1991), 36-98: and J-C. Chesnais, The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720-1984 (Oxford, 1992), Translated by E. and P. Kreager.
37. R. Reves, 'Declining Fertility in England as a Major Cause in the Twentieth Century Decline in Mortality: The Role of Changing Family Size and Age Structure in Infectious Disease in Infancy', American Journal of Epidemiology, 122 (1985), 112-26: R. I. Woods, P. A. Watterson and J. H. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921, Part II', Population Studies, 43 (1989), 122: R. Woods, The Population of Britain in the Nineteenth Century (1992), 50: and S. Szreter, Fertility, Class and Gender in Britain 1860-1940 (Cambridge, 1996).
38. R. Reves, 'Declining Fertility in England as a Major Cause in the Twentieth Century Decline in Mortality: The Role of Changing Family Size and Age Structure in Infectious Disease in Infancy', American Journal of Epidemiology, 122 (1985), 112-26: R. I. Woods, P. A. Watterson and J. H. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921, Part II', Population Studies, 43 (1989), 122: R. Woods, The Population of Britain in the Nineteenth Century (1992), 50: and S. Szreter, Fertility, Class and Gender in Britain 1860-1940 (Cambridge, 1996).
39. R. Reves, 'Declining Fertility in England as a Major Cause in the Twentieth Century Decline in Mortality: The Role of Changing Family Size and Age Structure in Infectious Disease in Infancy', American Journal of Epidemiology, 122 (1985), 112-26: R. I. Woods, P. A. Watterson and J. H. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921, Part II', Population Studies, 43 (1989), 122: R. Woods, The Population of Britain in the Nineteenth Century (1992), 50: and S. Szreter, Fertility, Class and Gender in Britain 1860-1940 (Cambridge, 1996).
40. R. Reves, 'Declining Fertility in England as a Major Cause in the Twentieth Century Decline in Mortality: The Role of Changing Family Size and Age Structure in Infectious Disease in Infancy', American Journal of Epidemiology, 122 (1985), 112-26: R. I. Woods, P. A. Watterson and J. H. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921, Part II', Population Studies, 43 (1989), 122: R. Woods, The Population of Britain in the Nineteenth Century (1992), 50: and S. Szreter, Fertility, Class and Gender in Britain 1860-1940 (Cambridge, 1996).
41. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
42. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
43. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
44. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
45. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
46. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
47. Robert Fogel has written very extensively on anthropometric history. But see, in particular, his 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings' in S. L. Engermann and R. E. Gallman (eds.), Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 439-555: 'The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms', in P. Higonnet, D. Landes and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 33-71: 'Second Thoughts on the European Escape from Hunger: Famines, Chronic Malnutrition and Mortality' in S. R. Osmani (ed.), Nutrition and Poverty (Oxford, 1992), 243-86 and 'Anthropometric History: The First Two Decades of a New Field of Research' in R. Hauspie, G. Lindgren and F. Falkner (eds.), Essays on Auxology Presented to James Mourilyan Tanner by Former Colleagues and Fellows (Welwyn Garden City, 1995), 271-84. Roderick Floud's major publication in this field is, R. Floud, K. Wachter and A. Gregory, Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge, 1990). But see, also, R. Floud and B. Harris, 'Health, Height and Welfare: Britain 1700-1980' in R. H. Steckel and R. Floud (eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialization (forthcoming, 1997). The subdiscipline as a whole has been comprehensively surveyed by B. Harris in 'Height, Health and History: An Overview of Recent Developments in Anthropometric History', Social History' of Medicine, 7 (1994), 297-320.
48. J. G. Williamson, Coping with City Growth during the British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, 1990) and idem, 'Coping with City Growth' in R. Floud and D. McCloskey (eds.), The Economic History of Britain since 1700: Volume 1: 1700-1860 (Second edition, Cambridge, 1994), 332-56.
49. J. G. Williamson, Coping with City Growth during the British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, 1990) and idem, 'Coping with City Growth' in R. Floud and D. McCloskey (eds.), The Economic History of Britain since 1700: Volume 1: 1700-1860 (Second edition, Cambridge, 1994), 332-56.
50. On the long-term demographic growth of London see E. A. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present, 37 (1967), 44-70: E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871: A Reconstruction (1981): P. Waller, Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914 (Oxford, 1983), 24-9 and P. Garside, 'London and the Home Counties' in F. M. L. Thompson (ed.), The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750-1950: Volume I: Regions and Communities (Cambridge, 1990), 498-501.
51. On the long-term demographic growth of London see E. A. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present, 37 (1967), 44-70: E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871: A Reconstruction (1981): P. Waller, Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914 (Oxford, 1983), 24-9 and P. Garside, 'London and the Home Counties' in F. M. L. Thompson (ed.), The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750-1950: Volume I: Regions and Communities (Cambridge, 1990), 498-501.
52. On the long-term demographic growth of London see E. A. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present, 37 (1967), 44-70: E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871: A Reconstruction (1981): P. Waller, Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914 (Oxford, 1983), 24-9 and P. Garside, 'London and the Home Counties' in F. M. L. Thompson (ed.), The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750-1950: Volume I: Regions and Communities (Cambridge, 1990), 498-501.
53. On the long-term demographic growth of London see E. A. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present, 37 (1967), 44-70: E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871: A Reconstruction (1981): P. Waller, Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914 (Oxford, 1983), 24-9 and P. Garside, 'London and the Home Counties' in F. M. L. Thompson (ed.), The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750-1950: Volume I: Regions and Communities (Cambridge, 1990), 498-501.
54. Fear of uncontrolled metropolitan growth and associated social and biological degeneration are central to G. Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, 1971). See, also, A. Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1985), 105-36.
55. Fear of uncontrolled metropolitan growth and associated social and biological degeneration are central to G. Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, 1971). See, also, A. Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820-1940 (Manchester, 1985), 105-36.
56. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model', 45 and Waller, Town, City, 25.
57. Wrigley, 'A Simple Model', 45 and Waller, Town, City, 25.
58. R. Dennis, 'London 1840-1950' in M. J. Daunton (ed.), The Cambridge Urban History of Britain: Volume III (forthcoming, 1998).
59. Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality', 208-9.
60. ibid, and relevant annual and decennial Reports of the Registrar-General.
61. Mooney, 'Geography of Mortality Decline', Table 5.2, 105. See, also, S. R. S. Szreter and G. Mooney, 'Urbanization, Mortality and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities', Economic History Review, (forthcoming, 1998).
62. Mooney, 'Geography of Mortality Decline', Table 5.2, 105. See, also, S. R. S. Szreter and G. Mooney, 'Urbanization, Mortality and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities', Economic History Review, (forthcoming, 1998).
63. C. M. Law, 'The Growth of the Urban Population in England and Wales, 1801-1911', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41 (1967), 125-43: G. Kearns, The Urban Penalty and the Population History of England' in A. Brandstrom and L-G. Tedebrand (eds), Society and Health during the
64. C. M. Law, 'The Growth of the Urban Population in England and Wales, 1801-1911', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41 (1967), 125-43: G. Kearns, The Urban Penalty and the Population History of England' in A. Brandstrom and L-G. Tedebrand (eds), Society and Health during the Demographic Transition (Stockholm, 1988), 213-35: and idem, 'Biology, Class and the Urban Penalty' in G. Kearns and C. W. J. Withers eds. Urbanizing Britain: Essays on Class and Community in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1991), 12-30.
65. C. M. Law, 'The Growth of the Urban Population in England and Wales, 1801-1911', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41 (1967), 125-43: G. Kearns, The Urban Penalty and the Population History of England' in A. Brandstrom and L-G. Tedebrand (eds), Society and Health during the Demographic Transition (Stockholm, 1988), 213-35: and idem, 'Biology, Class and the Urban Penalty' in G. Kearns and C. W. J. Withers eds. Urbanizing Britain: Essays on Class and Community in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1991), 12-30.
66. On the 'typhoid index' see N. M. Blake, Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States (New York, 1956), 264 and B. Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol and Boston, 1986), 123, passim. The comparative urban data for the 1890s is derived from A. Palmberg, A Treatise on Public Health and its Applications (1893), 513-19. Translated by A. Newshole.
67. On the 'typhoid index' see N. M. Blake, Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States (New York, 1956), 264 and B. Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol and Boston, 1986), 123, passim. The comparative urban data for the 1890s is derived from A. Palmberg, A Treatise on Public Health and its Applications (1893), 513-19. Translated by A. Newshole.
68. On the 'typhoid index' see N. M. Blake, Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States (New York, 1956), 264 and B. Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol and Boston, 1986), 123, passim. The comparative urban data for the 1890s is derived from A. Palmberg, A Treatise on Public Health and its Applications (1893), 513-19. Translated by A. Newshole.
69. The general point is made by Woods, Watterson and Woodward in 'Causes of Infant Mortality Decline', 113-32. For the London experience see Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?' and Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality'. See, also, N. Williams, 'Death in its Season: Class, Environment and the Mortality of Infants in Nineteenth Century Sheffield', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 71-94. The case for an underlying secular decline from the 1860s onwards is made by N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', Population Studies, 49 (1995), 419.
70. The general point is made by Woods, Watterson and Woodward in 'Causes of Infant Mortality Decline', 113-32. For the London experience see Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?' and Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality'. See, also, N. Williams, 'Death in its Season: Class, Environment and the Mortality of Infants in Nineteenth Century Sheffield', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 71-94. The case for an underlying secular decline from the 1860s onwards is made by N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', Population Studies, 49 (1995), 419.
71. The general point is made by Woods, Watterson and Woodward in 'Causes of Infant Mortality Decline', 113-32. For the London experience see Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?' and Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality'. See, also, N. Williams, 'Death in its Season: Class, Environment and the Mortality of Infants in Nineteenth Century Sheffield', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 71-94. The case for an underlying secular decline from the 1860s onwards is made by N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', Population Studies, 49 (1995), 419.
72. The general point is made by Woods, Watterson and Woodward in 'Causes of Infant Mortality Decline', 113-32. For the London experience see Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?' and Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality'. See, also, N. Williams, 'Death in its Season: Class, Environment and the Mortality of Infants in Nineteenth Century Sheffield', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 71-94. The case for an underlying secular decline from the 1860s onwards is made by N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', Population Studies, 49 (1995), 419.
73. The general point is made by Woods, Watterson and Woodward in 'Causes of Infant Mortality Decline', 113-32. For the London experience see Mooney, 'Did London Pass the "Sanitary Test"?' and Williams and Mooney, 'Infant Mortality'. See, also, N. Williams, 'Death in its Season: Class, Environment and the Mortality of Infants in Nineteenth Century Sheffield', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 71-94. The case for an underlying secular decline from the 1860s onwards is made by N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', Population Studies, 49 (1995), 419.
74. Williams and Mooney,'Infant Mortality', 191-2.
75. A. Hardy, The Epidemic Streets: Infectious Disease and the Rise of Preventive Medicine 1856-1900 (Oxford, 1993), 214-17 and 224-5.
76. See. P. Townsend, N. Davidson and M. Whitehead (eds.), Inequalities in Health (Harmondsworth, 1988) and the startling insights contained in R. G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (1996).
77. See. P. Townsend, N. Davidson and M. Whitehead (eds.), Inequalities in Health (Harmondsworth, 1988) and the startling insights contained in R. G. Wilkinson, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (1996).
78. McKeown, Modern Rise of Population, 44-72.
79. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 10 and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention', 10-11.
80. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 10 and S. Szreter, 'The Importance of Social Intervention', 10-11.
81. A. Hardy, Epidemic Streets and. A. S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (1984). See, also, B. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution: Typhus and Typhoid in London, 1851-1900' in Woods and Woodward eds., Urban Disease, 102-19.
82. A. Hardy, Epidemic Streets and. A. S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (1984). See, also, B. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution: Typhus and Typhoid in London, 1851-1900' in Woods and Woodward eds., Urban Disease, 102-19.
83. A. Hardy, Epidemic Streets and. A. S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (1984). See, also, B. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution: Typhus and Typhoid in London, 1851-1900' in Woods and Woodward eds., Urban Disease, 102-19.
84. P. G. Lunn, 'Nutrition, Immunity and Infection' in R. Schofield, D. Reher and A. Bideau (eds.), The Decline of Mortality in Europe (Oxford, 1991), 137. This kind of categorization is sometimes used to undermine McKeown's central nutritional hypothesis in The Modern Rise of Population. This is mistaken. Either directly or indirectly, in 'definite' or 'variable' form, nutritional change in relation to a large number of infections is inseparable from the reduction of mortality in the later nineteenth century. It is possible, in other words, to read Lunn's position in a pro- rather than anti-McKeownite manner. The continuing difficulty, however, is to demonstrate precisely how and when the 'nutritional factor' affected the behaviour of any given infection. Aspects of this problem are discussed in my review of Hardy, Epidemic Streets in Social History, 19 (1994), 407-14.
85. P. G. Lunn, 'Nutrition, Immunity and Infection' in R. Schofield, D. Reher and A. Bideau (eds.), The Decline of Mortality in Europe (Oxford, 1991), 137. This kind of categorization is sometimes used to undermine McKeown's central nutritional hypothesis in The Modern Rise of Population. This is mistaken. Either directly or indirectly, in 'definite' or 'variable' form, nutritional change in relation to a large number of infections is inseparable from the reduction of mortality in the later nineteenth century. It is possible, in other words, to read Lunn's position in a pro- rather than anti-McKeownite manner. The continuing difficulty, however, is to demonstrate precisely how and when the 'nutritional factor' affected the behaviour of any given infection. Aspects of this problem are discussed in my review of Hardy, Epidemic Streets in Social History, 19 (1994), 407-14.
86. P. G. Lunn, 'Nutrition, Immunity and Infection' in R. Schofield, D. Reher and A. Bideau (eds.), The Decline of Mortality in Europe (Oxford, 1991), 137. This kind of categorization is sometimes used to undermine McKeown's central nutritional hypothesis in The Modern Rise of Population. This is mistaken. Either directly or indirectly, in 'definite' or 'variable' form, nutritional change in relation to a large number of infections is inseparable from the reduction of mortality in the later nineteenth century. It is possible, in other words, to read Lunn's position in a pro- rather than anti-McKeownite manner. The continuing difficulty, however, is to demonstrate precisely how and when the 'nutritional factor' affected the behaviour of any given infection. Aspects of this problem are discussed in my review of Hardy, Epidemic Streets in Social History, 19 (1994), 407-14.
87. Fogel, 'Conquest of High Mortality', 60.
88. Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality', 497.
89. ibid. 446-7.
90. ibid. Fogel has himself played a central - and characteristically inventive - role in extending the historical analysis of nutritional status to incorporate data on weight and body mass indices. See R. W. Fogel, 'Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy', American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 369-95. Studies of weight are less numerous than those concerned with height. On the implications of this bias see J. C. Riley, 'Height, Nutrition and Mortality Risk Reconsidered', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 24 (1994), 465-92. For an authoritative overview of work predominantly focussed on weight in history see Fogel, 'Anthropometric History'.
91. ibid. Fogel has himself played a central - and characteristically inventive - role in extending the historical analysis of nutritional status to incorporate data on weight and body mass indices. See R. W. Fogel, 'Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy', American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 369-95. Studies of weight are less numerous than those concerned with height. On the implications of this bias see J. C. Riley, 'Height, Nutrition and Mortality Risk Reconsidered', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 24 (1994), 465-92. For an authoritative overview of work predominantly focussed on weight in history see Fogel, 'Anthropometric History'.
92. ibid. Fogel has himself played a central - and characteristically inventive - role in extending the historical analysis of nutritional status to incorporate data on weight and body mass indices. See R. W. Fogel, 'Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy', American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 369-95. Studies of weight are less numerous than those concerned with height. On the implications of this bias see J. C. Riley, 'Height, Nutrition and Mortality Risk Reconsidered', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 24 (1994), 465-92. For an authoritative overview of work predominantly focussed on weight in history see Fogel, 'Anthropometric History'.
93. ibid. Fogel has himself played a central - and characteristically inventive - role in extending the historical analysis of nutritional status to incorporate data on weight and body mass indices. See R. W. Fogel, 'Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy', American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 369-95. Studies of weight are less numerous than those concerned with height. On the implications of this bias see J. C. Riley, 'Height, Nutrition and Mortality Risk Reconsidered', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 24 (1994), 465-92. For an authoritative overview of work predominantly focussed on weight in history see Fogel, 'Anthropometric History'.
94. Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality', 507.
95. ibid. 507-8.
96. ibid. 457.
97. P. H. Lindert, comment on Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality', 531-2. A somewhat different, though equally damaging critique, focusing on problems connected with Fogel's formulation of the historical 'balance between the intake of nutrients and the claims against it' is mounted by Williamson in Coping with City Growth, 287, n.6.
98. P. H. Lindert, comment on Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality', 531-2. A somewhat different, though equally damaging critique, focusing on problems connected with Fogel's formulation of the historical 'balance between the intake of nutrients and the claims against it' is mounted by Williamson in Coping with City Growth, 287, n.6.
99. Harris, 'Height, Health and History', 319.
100. On complementary 'viral dosage' aspects of the historical epidemiology of measles see P. Aaby et al., 'Severe Measles in Sunderland, 1885: A European-African Comparison of Causes of Severe Infection', International Journal of Epidemiology, 15 (1986), 101-7: B. Burstrom, Risk Factors for Measles Mortality: Studies from Kenya and Nineteenth Century Stockholm (Sundbyberg, 1996): and Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 28-57.
101. On complementary 'viral dosage' aspects of the historical epidemiology of measles see P. Aaby et al., 'Severe Measles in Sunderland, 1885: A European-African Comparison of Causes of Severe Infection', International Journal of Epidemiology, 15 (1986), 101-7: B. Burstrom, Risk Factors for Measles Mortality: Studies from Kenya and Nineteenth Century Stockholm (Sundbyberg, 1996): and Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 28-57.
102. On complementary 'viral dosage' aspects of the historical epidemiology of measles see P. Aaby et al., 'Severe Measles in Sunderland, 1885: A European-African Comparison of Causes of Severe Infection', International Journal of Epidemiology, 15 (1986), 101-7: B. Burstrom, Risk Factors for Measles Mortality: Studies from Kenya and Nineteenth Century Stockholm (Sundbyberg, 1996): and Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 28-57.
103. But useful guidance on the kinds of sources that might be explored in this respect are to be found in B. Harris, 'Medical Inspection and the Nutrition of Schoolchildren in Britain 1900-1950' (Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of London 1989).
104. Floud et al., Height, Health and History, 314.
105. ibid.
106. ibid.
107. Both Fogel and Floud et al. correctly emphasize the importance of historical interractions between urban change, unstable disease environments and the claims made on gross intake of nutrients. However, over-generalized references to the adverse impacts of 'town life' in Height, Health and History involve an underspecification of the relevant environmental variables.
108. Stedman Jones, Outcast London, Part 1.
109. Floud et al., Height, Health and History, 207 (Figure 5.5), 275 and 326. A crucial finding - and one which powerfully reinforces Landers's conclusions to Death and the Metropolis - centres on the relationship between London and the 'new' industrial towns. By the 1860s the height data indicates that nutritional status in the latter locations had become only slightly less depressed than that recorded for large numbers of Londoners during Landers's inhospitable eighteenth century. Within less than a generation, however, height - and nutritional status - in the capital would compare favourably with those found in environmentally salubrious rural areas. The long-term impacts of urbanization and industrialization on health and environment are approached from a somewhat different perspective in C. H. Lee, 'Regional Inequalities in Infant Mortality in Britain, 1871-1971: Patterns and Hypotheses', Population Studies, xlv (1991), 55-65 and E. Garrett and A. Reid, '"Satanic Mills, Pleasant Lands": Spatial Variation in Women's Work and Infant Mortality as Viewed from the 1911 Census', Historical Research, Ixvii (1994), 156-77. Complementary points, broadly supporting the periodization proposed by Floud et al. are made by Szreter and Mooney, 'Urbanization, Mortality and the Standard of Living Debate'.
110. Floud et al., Height, Health and History, 207 (Figure 5.5), 275 and 326. A crucial finding - and one which powerfully reinforces Landers's conclusions to Death and the Metropolis - centres on the relationship between London and the 'new' industrial towns. By the 1860s the height data indicates that nutritional status in the latter locations had become only slightly less depressed than that recorded for large numbers of Londoners during Landers's inhospitable eighteenth century. Within less than a generation, however, height - and nutritional status - in the capital would compare favourably with those found in environmentally salubrious rural areas. The long-term impacts of urbanization and industrialization on health and environment are approached from a somewhat different perspective in C. H. Lee, 'Regional Inequalities in Infant Mortality in Britain, 1871-1971: Patterns and Hypotheses', Population Studies, xlv (1991), 55-65 and E. Garrett and A. Reid, '"Satanic Mills, Pleasant Lands": Spatial Variation in Women's Work and Infant Mortality as Viewed from the 1911 Census', Historical Research, Ixvii (1994), 156-77. Complementary points, broadly supporting the periodization proposed by Floud et al. are made by Szreter and Mooney, 'Urbanization, Mortality and the Standard of Living Debate'.
111. Floud et al., Height, Health and History, 207 (Figure 5.5), 275 and 326. A crucial finding - and one which powerfully reinforces Landers's conclusions to Death and the Metropolis - centres on the relationship between London and the 'new' industrial towns. By the 1860s the height data indicates that nutritional status in the latter locations had become only slightly less depressed than that recorded for large numbers of Londoners during Landers's inhospitable eighteenth century. Within less than a generation, however, height - and nutritional status - in the capital would compare favourably with those found in environmentally salubrious rural areas. The long-term impacts of urbanization and industrialization on health and environment are approached from a somewhat different perspective in C. H. Lee, 'Regional Inequalities in Infant Mortality in Britain, 1871-1971: Patterns and Hypotheses', Population Studies, xlv (1991), 55-65 and E. Garrett and A. Reid, '"Satanic Mills, Pleasant Lands": Spatial Variation in Women's Work and Infant Mortality as Viewed from the 1911 Census', Historical Research, Ixvii (1994), 156-77. Complementary points, broadly supporting the periodization proposed by Floud et al. are made by Szreter and Mooney, 'Urbanization, Mortality and the Standard of Living Debate'.
112. Williamson, Coping with City Growth, 285. A weakness of Williamson's approach is that it is heavily dependent on an analysis of groups of infections, rather than individual causes of death. I am grateful to Graham Mooney for clarifying this point.
113. ibid. 286.
114. ibid. 288. See, also, S. H. Preston and E. van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality in the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 32 (1978), 275-88 and L. Cain, 'An Economic History of Urban Location and Sanitation', Research in Economic History, 2 (1977), 337-89. I am grateful to Bob Millward for drawing my attention to this article.
115. ibid. 288. See, also, S. H. Preston and E. van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality in the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 32 (1978), 275-88 and L. Cain, 'An Economic History of Urban Location and Sanitation', Research in Economic History, 2 (1977), 337-89. I am grateful to Bob Millward for drawing my attention to this article.
116. ibid. 288. See, also, S. H. Preston and E. van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality in the Nineteenth Century', Population Studies, 32 (1978), 275-88 and L. Cain, 'An Economic History of Urban Location and Sanitation', Research in Economic History, 2 (1977), 337-89. I am grateful to Bob Millward for drawing my attention to this article.
117. Williamson, Coping with City Growth, 289. See, also S. H. Preston, 'The Changing Relation between Mortality and Level of Economic Development', Population Studies, 39 (1985), 231-48.
118. Williamson, Coping with City Growth, 289. See, also S. H. Preston, 'The Changing Relation between Mortality and Level of Economic Development', Population Studies, 39 (1985), 231-48.
119. Williamson, Coping with City Growth, 290-1. See, also, Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return'.
120. Williamson, Coping with City Growth, 290-1. See, also, Meeker, 'The Social Rate of Return'.
121. Williamson, ibid. 291.
122. Williamson, ibid. 298.
123. Preston and van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality', Preston, 'Changing Relations' and Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality'.
124. Preston and van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality', Preston, 'Changing Relations' and Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality'.
125. Preston and van de Walle, 'Urban French Mortality', Preston, 'Changing Relations' and Fogel, 'Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality'.
126. These questions are currently being addressed by the 'Mortality in the Metropolis' project.
127. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 351-7 and Mooney, 'Geography of Mortality Decline', Figure 2.1, 24.
128. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 351-7 and Mooney, 'Geography of Mortality Decline', Figure 2.1, 24.
129. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 35-9, 23-7 and 89-91. See, also, W. H. McNeill, 'Migration Patterns and Infections in Traditional Societies' in N. F. Stanley and R. A. Joske eds., Changing Disease Patterns and Human Infections (1980), 27-36. A fundamental paper in this area is E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'A Concept: The Unification of the Globe by Disease (Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries)' in Ladurie, The Mind and Method of the Historian (Chicago, 1981), 28-83. Translated by S. and B. Reynolds.
130. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 35-9, 23-7 and 89-91. See, also, W. H. McNeill, 'Migration Patterns and Infections in Traditional Societies' in N. F. Stanley and R. A. Joske eds., Changing Disease Patterns and Human Infections (1980), 27-36. A fundamental paper in this area is E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'A Concept: The Unification of the Globe by Disease (Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries)' in Ladurie, The Mind and Method of the Historian (Chicago, 1981), 28-83. Translated by S. and B. Reynolds.
131. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 35-9, 23-7 and 89-91. See, also, W. H. McNeill, 'Migration Patterns and Infections in Traditional Societies' in N. F. Stanley and R. A. Joske eds., Changing Disease Patterns and Human Infections (1980), 27-36. A fundamental paper in this area is E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'A Concept: The Unification of the Globe by Disease (Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries)' in Ladurie, The Mind and Method of the Historian (Chicago, 1981), 28-83. Translated by S. and B. Reynolds.
132. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 38.
133. ibid, 13-14 and 20.
134. ibid, 37.
135. McKeown, Modern Rise of Population, 82-3. The McKeownite position is broadly supported by Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 56-79.
136. McKeown, Modern Rise of Population, 82-3. The McKeownite position is broadly supported by Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 56-79.
137. Hardy, Epidemic Streets, 26.
138. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 35, 37, 38 and 124.
139. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution', 113-15 and idem, 'Death and Survival: Approaches to the History of Disease', Urban History Yearbook, 1980, 56-9. The larger context is perceptively dealt with in J. D. Post, 'Famine, Mortality and Epidemic Disease in the Process of Modernisation', Economic History Review, xxix (1976), 14-38.
140. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution', 113-15 and idem, 'Death and Survival: Approaches to the History of Disease', Urban History Yearbook, 1980, 56-9. The larger context is perceptively dealt with in J. D. Post, 'Famine, Mortality and Epidemic Disease in the Process of Modernisation', Economic History Review, xxix (1976), 14-38.
141. Luckin, 'Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution', 113-15 and idem, 'Death and Survival: Approaches to the History of Disease', Urban History Yearbook, 1980, 56-9. The larger context is perceptively dealt with in J. D. Post, 'Famine, Mortality and Epidemic Disease in the Process of Modernisation', Economic History Review, xxix (1976), 14-38.
142. For a 'Darwinian' account of these issues see P. W. Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease (Oxford, 1994). There is also much relevant material in W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford, 1977).
143. For a 'Darwinian' account of these issues see P. W. Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease (Oxford, 1994). There is also much relevant material in W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford, 1977).
144. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, 90.
145. ibid
146. In a revealing interchange with Floud et al., John Komlos suggests that 'nutritional status' be replaced by the term 'biological standard of living'. See J. Komlos, 'The Secular Trend in the Biological Standard of Living in the United Kingdom, 1730-1860', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 115-44: R. Floud, W. Wachter and A. Gregory, 'Measuring Historical Heights - Short Cuts or the Long Way Round: A Reply to Komlos', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 145-54 and J. Komlos, 'Further Thoughts on the Nutritional Status of the British Population', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 363-6. See, also, J. Komlos (ed.), Stature, Living Standards and Economic Development: Essays in Anthropometric History (Chicago, 1994).
147. In a revealing interchange with Floud et al., John Komlos suggests that 'nutritional status' be replaced by the term 'biological standard of living'. See J. Komlos, 'The Secular Trend in the Biological Standard of Living in the United Kingdom, 1730-1860', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 115-44: R. Floud, W. Wachter and A. Gregory, 'Measuring Historical Heights - Short Cuts or the Long Way Round: A Reply to Komlos', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 145-54 and J. Komlos, 'Further Thoughts on the Nutritional Status of the British Population', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 363-6. See, also, J. Komlos (ed.), Stature, Living Standards and Economic Development: Essays in Anthropometric History (Chicago, 1994).
148. In a revealing interchange with Floud et al., John Komlos suggests that 'nutritional status' be replaced by the term 'biological standard of living'. See J. Komlos, 'The Secular Trend in the Biological Standard of Living in the United Kingdom, 1730-1860', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 115-44: R. Floud, W. Wachter and A. Gregory, 'Measuring Historical Heights - Short Cuts or the Long Way Round: A Reply to Komlos', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 145-54 and J. Komlos, 'Further Thoughts on the Nutritional Status of the British Population', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 363-6. See, also, J. Komlos (ed.), Stature, Living Standards and Economic Development: Essays in Anthropometric History (Chicago, 1994).
149. In a revealing interchange with Floud et al., John Komlos suggests that 'nutritional status' be replaced by the term 'biological standard of living'. See J. Komlos, 'The Secular Trend in the Biological Standard of Living in the United Kingdom, 1730-1860', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 115-44: R. Floud, W. Wachter and A. Gregory, 'Measuring Historical Heights - Short Cuts or the Long Way Round: A Reply to Komlos', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 145-54 and J. Komlos, 'Further Thoughts on the Nutritional Status of the British Population', Economic History Review, xlvi (1993), 363-6. See, also, J. Komlos (ed.), Stature, Living Standards and Economic Development: Essays in Anthropometric History (Chicago, 1994).
150. This phrase has been borrowed from the title of the important article by C. Hamlin, 'Muddling in Bumbledom: On the Enormity of Large Sanitary Improvements in Four British Towns, 1855-1885', Victorian Studies, 32 (1984), 55-83.
151. This theme is being explored by the 'Mortality in the Metropolis' team. See, also, R. Millward and S. Sheard, 'The Urban Fiscal Problem, 1870-1914: Government Expenditure and Finance in England and Wales', Economic History Review, xlv (1995), 501-35 and, for the comparative dimension, G. Kearns, W. R. Lee and J. Rogers, 'The Interraction of Political and Economic Factors in the Management of Urban Public Health' in M. C. Nelson and J. Rogers (eds.), Urbanization and the Epidemiologic Transition (Uppsala, 1989), 9-81.
152. This theme is being explored by the 'Mortality in the Metropolis' team. See, also, R. Millward and S. Sheard, 'The Urban Fiscal Problem, 1870-1914: Government Expenditure and Finance in England and Wales', Economic History Review, xlv (1995), 501-35 and, for the comparative dimension, G. Kearns, W. R. Lee and J. Rogers, 'The Interraction of Political and Economic Factors in the Management of Urban Public Health' in M. C. Nelson and J. Rogers (eds.), Urbanization and the Epidemiologic Transition (Uppsala, 1989), 9-81.
153. On the 'system' itself see J. Davis, Reforming London: The London Government Problem (Oxford, 1988) and D. Owen, The Government of Victorian London 1855-1889: The Metropolitan Board of Work, the Vestries and the City Corporation (Cambridge: Mass, 1982). Edited by R. M. MacLeod.
154. On the 'system' itself see J. Davis, Reforming London: The London Government Problem (Oxford, 1988) and D. Owen, The Government of Victorian London 1855-1889: The Metropolitan Board of Work, the Vestries and the City Corporation (Cambridge: Mass, 1982). Edited by R. M. MacLeod.
155. This is a provisional conclusion derived from work in progress by the 'Mortality in the Metropolis' team on Kensington and Hackney in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
156. This is the overriding virtue of Hardy, Epidemic Streets.
157. See G. Mooney, A. Tanner and B. Luckin, 'Patient Pathways: Solving the Problem of Institutional Mortality in London in the Late Nineteenth Century' (forthcoming).