Modeling the composition of liquid stratospheric aerosols

Reviews of Geophysics

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 125-154

  Carslaw, Kenneth S ^a   Peter, Thomas ^a   Clegg, Simon L ^b  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR CHEMISTRY   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL COMPOSITION; LIQUID AEROSOL; STRATOSPHERE;

FORECASTING; LIQUIDS; NITRIC ACID; OZONE; OZONE LAYER; SULFURIC ACID; TEMPERATURE; THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES; THERMODYNAMICS; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS;

AEROSOL COMPOSITION; CONCENTRATED SULFURIC ACIDS; LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS; LIQUID-PHASE REACTION; POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS; STRATOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; STRATOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE; THERMODYNAMIC MODEL;

AEROSOLS;

EID: 0031407388     PISSN: 87551209     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/97RG00078     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Abbatt, J. P. D., Interactions of HBr, HCl, and HOBr with supercooled sulfuric acid solutions of stratospheric composition, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 14,009-14,017, 1995.
2. Adriani, A., T. Deshler, G. Di Donfrancesco, and G. P. Gobbi, Polar stratospheric clouds and volcanic aerosol during spring 1992 over McMurdo Station, Antarctica: Lidar and particle counter measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 25,877-25,897, 1995.
3. Arnold, F., Stratospheric aerosol increases and ozone destruction: Implications from mass spectrometer measurements, Ber. Bunsen Ges. Phys. Chem., 96, 339-350, 1992.
4. Ayers, G. P., R. W. Gillett, and J. L. Gras, On the vapor pressure of sulfuric acid, Geophys. Res. Lett., 7, 433-436, 1980.
5. Bassett, M., and J. H. Seinfeld, Atmospheric equilibrium model of sulfate and nitrate aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 17, 2237-2252, 1983.
6. Baumgardner, D., J. E. Dye, B. Gandrud, K. Barr, K. Kelly, and K. R. Chan, Refractive indexes of aerosols in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 749-752, 1996.
7. Becker, K. H., G. Schrey, and F. Zabel, Laboratory studies of stratospheric reactions on surfaces, Rep. 01 LO 9104/2, Bergische Univ., Wuppertal, Germany, 1995.
8. 3 solu-tions under polar stratospheric conditions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 871-874, 1994.
9. 4-HNO, solutions under polar stratospheric conditions" by K. D. Beyer, S. W. Seago, H. Y. Chang, and M. J. Molina, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2715, 1996.
10. Beyerle, G., R. Neuber, and O. Schrems, Multiwavelength Lidar measurements of stratospheric aerosols above Spitsbergen during winter 1992/93, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 57-60, 1994.
11. Biermann, U. M., T. Prosper, T. Koop, J. Mössinger, P. J. Crutzen, and T. Peter, The unsuitability of meteoritic and other nuclei for polar stratospheric cloud freezing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1693-1696, 1996.
12. Bigg, E. K., Stratospheric particles, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 910-917, 1975.
13. 3 solubility, Atmos. Environ., 24, 1945-1955, 1990.
14. Bronsted, J. N., Studies on solubility, IV, The principle of the specific interaction of ions, J Am. Chem. Soc., 44, 877-898, 1922.
15. Browell, E. V., C. F. Butler, S. Ismail, P. A. Robinette, A. F. Carter, N. S. Higdon, O. B. Toon, M. R. Schoeberl. and A. F. Tuck, Airborne lidar observations in the wintertime Arctic stratosphere: Polar stratospheric clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 385-388, 1990.
16. Burley, J. D., and H. S. Johnston, Nitrosyl sulfuric acid and stratospheric aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1363-1366, 1992.
17. Carslaw, K. S., P. Brimblecombe, S. L. Clegg, and J. S. A. Green, The solubility of HCI in stratospheric aqueous aerosols and the depletion of ozone, J. Aerosol Sci., 23, suppl., S909-S912, 1992.
18. 3 and water uptake by liquid particles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2479-2482, 1994.
19. 2O including solubilities of HBr, from <200 K to 328 K, J. Phys. Chem., 99, 11,557-11,574, 1995a.
20. 3, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1877-1880, 1995b.
21. Chase, M. W., Jr., C. A. Davies, J. R. Downey Jr., D. J. Furip, R. A. McDonald, and A. N. Syverud, (Eds.), JANAF thermochemical tables, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 14, suppl. 1, 1985.
22. Chen, C. C., and L. B. Evans, A local composition model for the excess Gibbs energy of aqueous electrolyte systems, AIChE J., 32, 444-454, 1986.
23. Chen, C. C, H. I. Britt, J. F. Boston, and L. B. Evans, Local composition model for excess Gibbs energy of electrolyte systems, I, Single Solvent, single completely dissociated electrolyte systems, AIChE J., 28, 588-596, 1982.
24. Clegg, S. L., and P. Brimblecombe, The dissociation constant and Henry's law constant of HCl in aqueous solution, Atmos. Environ., 20, 2483-2485, 1986.
25. Clegg, S. L., and P. Brimblecombe, Henry's law and sheep's tails - Author's reply, Atmos. Environ., 22, 2332-2333, 1988.
26. Clegg, S. L., and P. Brimblecombe, The solubility and activity coefficient of oxygen in salt solutions and brines, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 3315-3328, 1990a.
27. Clegg, S. L., and P. Brimblecombe, Equilibrium partial pressures and mean activity and osmotic coefficients of 0-100% nitric acid as a function of temperature, J. Phys. Chem., 94, 5369-5380, 1990b.
28. -1 aqueous sulfuric acid from <200 to 328 K, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 40, 43-64, 1995.
29. Clegg, S. L., and K. S. Pitzer, Thermodynamics of multicomponent, miscible ionic solutions: Generalized equations for symmetrical electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 3513-3520; 1992. (Correction, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 1368, 1994.)
30. Clegg, S. L., and K. S. Pitzer, Thermodynamics of multicomponent, miscible ionic solutions: Generalized equations for symmetrical electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 3513-3520; 1992. (Correction, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 1368, 1994.)
31. Clegg, S. L., and M. Whitfield, Activity coefficients in natural waters, in Activity Coefficients in Electrolyte Solutions, edited by K. S. Pitzer, pp. 279-434, CRC Press, Boca Raton. Fia., 1991.
32. -1 aqueous sulphuric acid from 273.15 K to 328.15 K, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans., 90, 1875-1894, 1994.
33. Clegg, S. L., K. S. Pitzer, and P. Brimblecombe, Thermodynamics of multicomponent, miscible, ionic solutions, 2, Mixtures including unsymmetrical electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 9470-9479, 1992. (Corrections, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 1368, 1994; J. Phys. Chem., 99, 6755, 1995.)
34. Clegg, S. L., K. S. Pitzer, and P. Brimblecombe, Thermodynamics of multicomponent, miscible, ionic solutions, 2, Mixtures including unsymmetrical electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 9470-9479, 1992. (Corrections, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 1368, 1994; J. Phys. Chem., 99, 6755, 1995.)
35. Clegg, S. L., K. S. Pitzer, and P. Brimblecombe, Thermodynamics of multicomponent, miscible, ionic solutions, 2, Mixtures including unsymmetrical electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 9470-9479, 1992. (Corrections, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 1368, 1994; J. Phys. Chem., 99, 6755, 1995.)
36. Clegg, S. L., K. S. Carslaw, and P. Brimblecombe, Comment on "Vapor pressures in the ternary system water-nitric acid-sulfuric acid at low temperature: A reexamination" by D.-E. Taleb, J. L. Ponche, and P. Mirabel, 1, J. Geophys. Res., in press, 1997.
37. Crutzen, P. J., and F. Arnold, Nitric acid cloud formation in the cold Antarctic stratosphere: A major cause for the springtime "ozone hole," Nature, 324, 651-655, 1986.
38. Debye, P., and E. Hückel, Zur theorie der elektrolyte, I., Gefrierpunktserniedrigung und verwandte Erscheinungen, Phys. Z., 24, 185-206, 1923.
39. Denbigh, K., The Principle of Chemical Equilibrium, 3rd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1971.
40. Deshler, T., In situ measurements of Pinatubo aerosol over Kiruna on four days between 18 January and 13 February 1992, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 1323-1326, 1994.
41. Drdla, K., A. Tabazadeh, R. P. Turco, M. Z. Jacobson, J. E. Dye, C. Twohy, D. Baumgardner, K. K. Kelly, R. P. Chan, and M. Loewenstein, Analysis of the physical state of one Arctic polar stratospheric cloud based of observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2473-2478, 1994.
42. Dye, J. E., D. Baumgardner, B. W. Gandrud, S. R. Kawa, K. K. Kelly, M. Loewenstein, G. V. Ferry, K. R. Chan, and B. L. Gary, Particle size distributions in Arctic polar stratospheric clouds, growth and freezing of sulfuric acid droplets, and implications for cloud formation, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 8015-8034, 1992.
43. Dye, J. E., et al., In situ observations of an Antarctic polar stratospheric cloud - similarities with Arctic observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1913-1916, 1996.
44. 2O solutions, Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc., 100, 269-278, 1995.
45. Fahey, D. W., K. Kelly, G. V. Ferry, L. R. Poole, J. C. Wilson, D. M. Murphy, and K. R. Chan. In situ measurements of total reactive nitrogen, total water vapor, and aerosols in polar stratospheric clouds in the Antarctic stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 11,299-11,316, 1989.
46. Farlow, N. H., D. M. Hayes, and H. Y. Lem, Stratospheric aerosols: Undissolved granules and physical state, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 4921-4929, 1977.
47. Farlow, N. H., K. G. Snetsinger, D. M. Hayes, H. Y. Lern, and B. M. Tooper, Nitrogen-sulfur compounds in stratospheric aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 6207-6211, 1978.
48. x interaction, Nature, 315, 207-210, 1985.
49. Fox, L. E., D. R. Worsnop, M. S. Zahniser, and M. S. Wofsy, Metastable phases in polar stratospheric aerosols, Science, 267, 351-355, 1995.
50. Franks, F., Water - A Comprehensive Treatise, vol. 7, Plenum, New York, 1982.
51. Gable, C. M., H. F. Betz, and S. H. Maron, Phase equilibria of the system sulfur trioxide-water, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 72, 1445-1448, 1950.
52. Garrels, R. M., and M. Thompson, A chemical model for seawater at 25°C and one atmosphere total pressure, Am. J. Sci., 260, 57-66, 1962.
53. Giauque, W. F., E. W. Hornung, J. E. Kunzler, and T. R. Rubin, The thermodynamic properties of aqueous sulfuric acid solutions and hydrates from 15 to 300 degrees K, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 82, 62-70, 1960.
54. Goldberg, R. N., Evaluated activity and osmotic coefficients for aqueous solutions: Thirty-six uni-bivalent electrolytes, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 10, 671-764, 1981.
55. Guggenheim, E. A., Thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions of strong electrolytes, Philos. Mag., 19, 588-643, 1935.
56. Guggenheim, E. A., and J. C. Turgeon, Specific interaction of ions, Trans. Faraday Soc., 51, 747-761, 1955.
57. Haghtalab, A., and J. H. Vera, An empirical mixing rule for estimating mean ionic activity coefficients in multi-electrolyte solutions from binary data only, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 70, 574-579, 1992.
58. Hamer, W. J., and Y.-C. Wu, Osmotic coefficients and mean activity coefficients of uni-univalent electrolytes in water at 25°C, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 1, 1047-1099, 1972.
59. 2O aerosol particles in the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 753-756, 1996.
60. 2O solutions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 77, 421-423, 1990.
61. Hanson, D., and K. Mauersberger, Laboratory studies of the nitric acid trihydrate: Implications for the south polar stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 15, 855-858, 1988.
62. 5 on 40 to 70% sulfuric acid solutions, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 17,307-17,314, 1991.
63. Hanson, D. R., and A. R. Ravishankara, Uptake of HCl and HOCl onto sulfuric acid: Solubilities, diffusivities, and reaction, J. Phys. Chem., 97, 12,309-12,319, 1993.
64. 2O, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 5728-5735, 1994.
65. Hanson, D. R., and A. R. Ravishankara, Heterogeneous chemistry of Bromine species in sulfuric acid under stratospheric conditions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 385-388, 1995.
66. 2 radical uptake coefficients on water and sulfuric acid surfaces, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 4979-4985, 1992.
67. Hanson D. R., A. R. Ravishankara, and S. Solomon, Heterogeneous reactions in sulfuric acid aerosols: A framework for model calculations, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 3615-3629, 1994.
68. Harned, H. S., and B. B. Owen, The Physical Chemistry of Electrolytic Solutions, Reinhold, New York, 1958.
69. 2O system from zero to high concentration at 25°C, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 981-997, 1980.
70. Hesstvedt, E., A two-dimensional model of mother-of-pearl clouds, Tellus, 14, 297-300, 1962.
71. Hofmann, D. J., J. W. Harder, S. R. Rolf, and J. M. Rosen, Balloonborne observations of the temporal development and vertical structure of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1986, Nature, 326, 59-62, 1987.
72. Hofmann, D. J., T. Deshler, F. Arnold, and H. Schlager, Balloon observations of nitric acid aerosol formation in the Arctic stratosphere, II, Aerosol, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 1279-1282, 1990.
73. Hood, G. C., and C. A. Reilly, Ionisation of strong electrolytes, VIII, Temperature coefficient of dissociation of strong acids by proton magnetic resonance, J. Chem. Phys., 32, 127-130, 1960.
74. 4 to stratospheric temperatures, J. Atmos. Chem., 21, 81-95, 1995.
75. Jaecker-Voirol, A., J. L. Ponche, and P. Mirabel, Vapor pressures in the ternary system water-nitric acid-sulfuric acid at low temperatures, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 11,857-11,863, 1990. (Correction, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 22,565, 1990.)
76. Jaecker-Voirol, A., J. L. Ponche, and P. Mirabel, Vapor pressures in the ternary system water-nitric acid-sulfuric acid at low temperatures, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 11,857-11,863, 1990. (Correction, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 22,565, 1990.)
77. Junge, C. E., C. W. Chagnon, and J. E. Manson, Stratospheric aerosols, J. Meteorol., 18, 81-108, 1961.
78. Klotz, I. M., and R. M. Rosenberg, Chemical Thermodynamics, Basic Theory and Methods, 3rd ed., Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, Calif., 1972.
79. Koop, T., U. M. Biermann, W. Raber, B. P. Luo, P. J. Crutzen, and T. Peter, Do stratospheric aerosol droplets freeze above the ice frost point?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 917-920, 1995.
80. Kusik, C. L., and H. P. Meissner, Electrolytic activity coefficients in inorganic processing, AIChE Symp. Ser., 74(173), 14-20, 1978.
81. Lary, D. J., M. P. Chipperfield, R. Toumi, and T. Lenton, Heterogeneous atmospheric bromine chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1489-1504, 1995.
82. Lewis, G. N., and G. A. Linhart, The degree of ionization of very dilute electrolytes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 41, 1951-1960, 1919.
83. Lewis, G. N., and M. Randall, The activity coefficient of strong electrolytes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 43, 1112-1154, 1921.
84. Li, Y. M., and J. Coull, The prediction of vapor liquid equilibria for ternary mixtures from the data of binary systems, J. Inst. Petrol., 34, 692-704, 1948.
85. Luo, B. P., T. Peter, and P. Crutzen, Freezing of stratospheric aerosol droplets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 1447-1450, 1994.
86. 2O solutions to low stratospheric temperatures, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 247-250, 1995.
87. MacKenzie, A. R., M. Kulmala, A. Laaksonen, and T. Vesala, On the theories of type I polar stratospheric cloud formation, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11,275-11,288, 1995.
88. 4 at low temperature, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 41, 765-778, 1996.
89. Masterton, W. L., and T. P. Lee, Salting coefficients from scaled particle theory, J. Phys. Chem., 74, 1776-1782, 1970.
90. McCormick, M. P., H. M. Steele, P. Hamill, W. P. Chu, and T. J. Swissler, Polar stratospheric cloud sightings by SAM II, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1387-1397, 1982.
91. McCormick, M. P., L. W. Thomason, and C. R. Trepte, Atmospheric effects of the Mt Pinatubo eruption, Nature, 373, 399-404, 1995.
92. Meilinger, S. K., T. Koop, B. P. Luo, T. Huthwelker, K. S. Carslaw, U. Krieger, P. J. Crutzen, and T. Peter, Size-dependent stratospheric droplet composition in leewave temperature fluctuations and their potential role in PSC freezing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 3031-3034, 1995.
93. Millero, F. J., and D. R. Schreiber, Use of the ion pairing model to estimate activity coefficients of the ionic components of natural waters, Am. J. Sci., 282, 1508-1540, 1982.
94. 2 from the self-reaction of the ClO radical, J. Phys. Chem., 91, 433-436, 1987.
95. Molina, M. J., and F. S. Rowland, Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atom-catalysed destruction of ozone. Nature. 249, 810-812, 1974.
96. 2O system: Implications for polar stratospheric clouds, Science, 261, 1418-1423, 1993.
97. Murphy, D. M., and B. L. Gary, Mesoscale temperature-fluctuations and polar stratospheric clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1753-1760, 1995.
98. Murphy, D. M., and D. S. Thomson, Laser ionization massspectroscopy of single aerosol particles, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 22, 237-249, 1995.
99. Noble, C. A., and K. A. Prather, Real-time measurement of correlated size and composition profiles of individual atmospheric aerosol particles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 2667-2680, 1996.
100. Parker, V. B., Thermal Properties of Aqueous Univalent Electrolytes, Natl. Bur. Stand. Ref. Data Ser., U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D. C., 1965.
101. Peter, T., and P. J. Crutzen, The role of stratospheric cloud particles in polar ozone depletion - An overview, J. Aerosol. Sci., 24, suppl., S119-S120, 1993.
102. Peter, T., C. Brühl, and P. J. Crutzen, Increase in the PSC-formation probability caused by high-flying aircraft, Geophys. Res. Lett., 18, 1465-1468, 1991.
103. Pitzer, K. S., Electrolytes: From dilute solutions to fused salts, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 102, 2902-2906, 1980.
104. Pitzer, K. S., Ion interaction approach: Theory and data correlation, in Activity Coefficients in Electrolyte Solutions, edited by K. S. Pitzer, pp. 75-153, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fia., 1991.
105. Pitzer, K. S., and J. M. Simonson, Thermodynamics of multi-component, miscible, ionic systems: Theory and equations, J. Phys. Chem., 90, 3005-3009, 1986.
106. Poole, L. R., and M. P. McCormick, Polar stratospheric clouds and the Antarctic ozone hole, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 8423-8430, 1988.
107. Poole, L. R., and M. C. Pitts, Polar stratospheric cloud climatology based on Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement II observations from 1978-1989, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 13,083-13,089, 1994.
108. Poole, L. R., S. Solomon, B. W. Gandrud, K. A. Powell, J. E. Dye, R. L. Jones, and D. S. McKenna, The polar stratospheric cloud event of January 24, 1989, 1, Microphysics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 537-540, 1990.
109. Prausnitz, J. M., R. N. Lichtenthaler, and E. Gomes de Azevedo. Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1986.
110. Randall, M., and C. F. Failey, The activity coefficient of nonelectrolytes in aqueous salt solutions from solubility measurements: The salting out order of the ions, Chem. Rev., 4, 285-290, 1927.
111. 4 at 25°C, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 21, 374-379, 1976.
112. Reihs, C. M., D. M. Golden, and M. A. Tolbert, Nitric acid uptake by sulfuric acid solutions under stratospheric conditions: Determination of Henry's law solubility, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 16,545-16,550, 1990.
113. 5 by sulfuric acid solutions, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 3583-3601, 1997.
114. Robinson, R. A., and R. H. Stokes, Electrolyte Solutions, 3rd ed., Butterworths, London, 1970.
115. Scatchard, G., Osmotic coefficients and activity coefficients in mixed electrolyte solutions, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 13, 2636-2642, 1961.
116. Scatchard, G., The excess free energy and related properties of solutions containing electrolytes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 90, 3124-3127, 1968.
117. Scatchard, G., and S. S. Prentiss, Freezing points of aqueous solutions, VIII, Mixtures of sodium chloride with glycine and ethyl alcohol, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 56, 2314-2326, 1934a.
118. Scatchard, G., and S. S. Prentiss, Freezing points of aqueous solutions, VII, Ethyl alcohol, glycine and their mixtures, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 56, 1486-1492, 1934b.
119. Scatchard, G., R. M. Rush, and J. S. Johnson, Osmotic and activity coefficients for binary mixtures of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate and magnesium chloride in water at 25C, III, Treatment with the ions as components, J. Phys. Chem., 74, 3786-3796, 1970.
120. Schafer, K. (Ed.), Landolt-Bornstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, Neue Ser. IV, vol. 1, part b, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1977.
121. Schlager, H., F. Arnold, D. Hofmann, and T. Deshler, Balloon observations of nitric acid aerosol formation in the Arctic stratosphere, I, Gaseous nitric acid, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 1275-1278, 1990.
122. Schwartz, S. E., Henry's law and sheep's tails, Atmos. Environ., 22, 2331-2332, 1988.
123. Seinfeld, J. H., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution, John Wiley, New York, 1986.
124. Solomon, S., The mystery of the Antarctic ozone "hole," Rev. Geophys., 26, 131-148, 1988.
125. Solomon, S., R. R. Garcia, F. S. Rowland, and D. J. Wuebbles, On the depletion of Antarctic ozone, Nature, 321, 755-758, 1986.
126. Solomon, S., R. R. Garcia, and A. R. Ravishankara, On the role of iodine in ozone depletion, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 20,491-20,499, 1994.
127. Stanford, J. L., and J. S. Davis, A century of stratospheric cloud reports: 1870-1972., Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 55, 213-219, 1974.
128. Steele, H. M., and P. Hamill, Effects of temperature and humidity on the growth and optical properties of sulfuric acid-water droplets in the stratosphere, J. Aerosol Sci., 12, 517-528, 1981.
129. Steele, H. M., P. Hamill, M. P. McCormick, and T. J. Swissler, The formation of polar stratospheric clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 2055-2067, 1983.
130. Stefanutti, L., M. Morandi, M. Del Guasta, S. Godin, and C. David, Unusual PSCs observed by lidar in Antarctica, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 2377-2380, 1995.
131. Stein, B., M. Del Guasta, J. Kolenda, M. Morandi, P. Rairoux, L. Stefanutti, and J. P. Wolf, Stratospheric aerosol size distributions from multispectral lidar measurements at Sodankylaä during EASOE, IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices, ED-20, 14-19, 1995.
132. Stokes, R. H., and R. A. Robinson, Interactions in aqueous nonelectrolyte solutions, I, Solute-solvent equilibria, J. Phys. Chem., 70, 2126-2130, 1966.
133. 2O amorphous solid phases in the stratosphere inferred from ER-2 data, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 9071-9078, 1996.
134. Tabazadeh, A., R. P. Turco, K. Drdla, and M. Z. Jacobson, A study of type I polar stratospheric cloud formation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 1619-1622, 1994a.
135. Tabazadeh, A., R. P. Turco, and M. Z. Jacobson, A model for studying the composition and chemical effects of stratospheric aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12,897-12,914, 1994b.
136. Taleb, D.-E., J. L. Ponche, and P. Mirabel, Vapor pressures in the ternary system water-nitric acid-sulfuric acid at low temperatures: A re-examination, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 25,967-25,977, 1996.
137. Tolbert, M. A., M. J. Rossi, and D. M. Golden, Heterogeneous interactions of chlorine nitrate, hydrogen chloride, and nitric acid with sulfuric acid surfaces at stratospheric temperatures, Geophys. Res. Lett., 15, 847-850, 1988.
138. Tolbert, M. A., J. Pfaff, I. J. Jayaweera, and M. J. Prather, Uptake of formaldehyde by sulfuric acid solutions: Impact on stratospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 2957-2962, 1993.
139. Toon, G. C., C. B. Farmer, L. L. Lowes, P. W. Schaper, J.-F. Blavier, and R. H. Norton, Infrared aircraft measurements of stratospheric composition over Antarctica during September 1987, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 16,571-16,596, 1989.
140. Toon, O. B., and M. A. Tolbert, Spectroscopic evidence against nitric acid trihydrate in polar stratospheric clouds, Nature, 375, 218-221, 1995.
141. 3 and HCl in the winter polar stratospheres, Geophys. Res. Lett., 13, 1284-1287, 1986.
142. Toon, O. B., E. V. Browell, S. Kinne, and J. Jordan, An analysis of lidar observations of polar stratospheric clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 393-396, 1990.
143. Toon, O. B., et al., Heterogeneous reaction probabilities, solubilities, and the physical state of cold volcanic aerosols, Science, 261, 1136-1140, 1993.
144. Turco, R. P., and P. Hamill, Supercooled sulfuric acid droplets: Perturbed stratospheric chemistry in early winter, Ber. Bunsen Ges. Phys. Chem., 96, 323-334, 1992.
145. Turco, R. P., O. B. Toon, P. Hamill, and R. C. Whitten, Effects of meteoric debris on stratospheric aerosols and gases, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 1113-1128, 1981.
146. Turco, R. P., R. C. Whitten, and O. B. Toon, Stratospheric aerosols: Observations and theory, Rev. Geophys., 20, 233-279, 1982.
147. 3 by aqueous sulfuric acid droplets, J. Phys. Chem., 95, 1684-1689, 1991.
148. Volkert, H., and D. Intes, Orographically forced stratospheric waves over northern Scandinavia, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1205-1208, 1992.
149. Wagman, D. D., W. H. Evans, V. B. Parker, I. H. Schumm, S. M. Bailey, K. L. Churnay, and R. L. Nutall, The NBS tables of chemical thermodynamic properties, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 11, 392 pp., 1982.
150. Walas, S. M., Phase Equilibrium in Chemical Engineering, 671 pp., Butterworth, London, 1985.
151. Watson, L. R., J. M. Van Doren, P. Davidovits, D. R. Worsnop, M. S. Zahniser, and C. E. Kolb, Uptake of HCl molecules by aqueous sulfuric acid droplets as a function of acid concentration, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 5631-5638, 1990.
152. Wexler, A. S., and J. H. Seinfeld, Second-generation inorganic aerosol model, Atmos. Environ., Pan A, 25, 2731-2748, 1991.
153. Williams, L. R., and D. M. Golden, Solubility of HCl in sulfuric acid at stratospheric temperatures, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 2227-2230, 1993.
154. Williams, L. R., D. M. Golden, and D. L. Huestis, Solubility of HBr in sulfuric acid at stratospheric temperatures, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 7329-7335, 1995.
155. 2O particles in the polar stratosphere, J. Atmos. Sci, 47, 2004-2012, 1990.
156. Wolff, E. W., and R. Mulvaney, Reactions on sulphuric acid aerosol and on polar stratospheric clouds in the Antarctic stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 18, 1007-1010, 1991.
157. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1991, Rep. 25, Geneva, 1992.
158. Worsnop, D. R., L. E. Fox, M. S. Zahniser, and S. C. Wofsy, Vapor pressures of solid hydrates of nitric acid: Implications for polar stratospheric clouds, Science, 259, 71-74, 1993.
159. 2O systems: Incorporation of stratospheric acids into background sulfate aerosols, J. Phys. Chem., 97, 8541-8548, 1993a.
160. 2O binary system at low temperatures: Stratospheric implications, J. Phys. Chem., 97, 7351-7358, 1993b.
161. 2, HCl, and HOCl on liquid sulfuric acid surfaces, J. Phys. Chem., 98, 13,563-13,574, 1994.
162. 2O ternary solutions under stratospheric conditions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1493-1496, 1995.