Caring for Chicago's women and girls: The sisters good shepherd, 1859-1911

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 260-294

  Hoy, Suellen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHARITY WORK; GENDER ISSUES; NINETEENTH CENTURY; RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE; SOCIAL WORK; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY;

USA, ILLINOIS, CHICAGO;

EID: 0031401614     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429702300302     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. "An Act to Incorporate the Sisters of the Good Shepherd, of the City of Chicago," March 7, 1867, Laws of Illinois 1867: Private Laws, I, 153.
2. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910 - Population (Washington, D.C., 1913).
3. Sr. Gabriel O'Brien, Reminiscences of Seventy Years, 1846-1916 (Chicago, 1916), 57; Sr. Isidore O'Connor, Life of Mary Monholland: One of the Pioneer Sisters of the Order of Mercy in the West (Chicago, 1894), 132; Mary Foote Coughlin, A New Commandment: A Little Memoir of the Work Accomplished by the Good Shepherd Nuns in Chicago (Chicago, 1909); Rev. James J. McGovern, The Life and Writings of the Right Reverend John McMullen, D. D.: First Bishop of Davenport, Iowa (Chicago, 1888), 128-9; and Chicago Tribune, July 26,1866.
4. Sr. Gabriel O'Brien, Reminiscences of Seventy Years, 1846-1916 (Chicago, 1916), 57; Sr. Isidore O'Connor, Life of Mary Monholland: One of the Pioneer Sisters of the Order of Mercy in the West (Chicago, 1894), 132; Mary Foote Coughlin, A New Commandment: A Little Memoir of the Work Accomplished by the Good Shepherd Nuns in Chicago (Chicago, 1909); Rev. James J. McGovern, The Life and Writings of the Right Reverend John McMullen, D. D.: First Bishop of Davenport, Iowa (Chicago, 1888), 128-9; and Chicago Tribune, July 26,1866.
5. Sr. Gabriel O'Brien, Reminiscences of Seventy Years, 1846-1916 (Chicago, 1916), 57; Sr. Isidore O'Connor, Life of Mary Monholland: One of the Pioneer Sisters of the Order of Mercy in the West (Chicago, 1894), 132; Mary Foote Coughlin, A New Commandment: A Little Memoir of the Work Accomplished by the Good Shepherd Nuns in Chicago (Chicago, 1909); Rev. James J. McGovern, The Life and Writings of the Right Reverend John McMullen, D. D.: First Bishop of Davenport, Iowa (Chicago, 1888), 128-9; and Chicago Tribune, July 26,1866.
6. Sr. Gabriel O'Brien, Reminiscences of Seventy Years, 1846-1916 (Chicago, 1916), 57; Sr. Isidore O'Connor, Life of Mary Monholland: One of the Pioneer Sisters of the Order of Mercy in the West (Chicago, 1894), 132; Mary Foote Coughlin, A New Commandment: A Little Memoir of the Work Accomplished by the Good Shepherd Nuns in Chicago (Chicago, 1909); Rev. James J. McGovern, The Life and Writings of the Right Reverend John McMullen, D. D.: First Bishop of Davenport, Iowa (Chicago, 1888), 128-9; and Chicago Tribune, July 26,1866.
7. Sr. Gabriel O'Brien, Reminiscences of Seventy Years, 1846-1916 (Chicago, 1916), 57; Sr. Isidore O'Connor, Life of Mary Monholland: One of the Pioneer Sisters of the Order of Mercy in the West (Chicago, 1894), 132; Mary Foote Coughlin, A New Commandment: A Little Memoir of the Work Accomplished by the Good Shepherd Nuns in Chicago (Chicago, 1909); Rev. James J. McGovern, The Life and Writings of the Right Reverend John McMullen, D. D.: First Bishop of Davenport, Iowa (Chicago, 1888), 128-9; and Chicago Tribune, July 26,1866.
8. Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism, 1789-1914 (New York, 1989), 117-20; A. M. Clarke, Life of Reverend Mother Mary of St. Euphrasia Pelletier: First Superior General of the Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (London, 1895), 145-6; and Claude Langlois, Le Catholicisme au Feminin: Les Congrégations Francaises à Supérieure Générale au XIXe Siècle (Paris, 1984), 544.
9. Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism, 1789-1914 (New York, 1989), 117-20; A. M. Clarke, Life of Reverend Mother Mary of St. Euphrasia Pelletier: First Superior General of the Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (London, 1895), 145-6; and Claude Langlois, Le Catholicisme au Feminin: Les Congrégations Francaises à Supérieure Générale au XIXe Siècle (Paris, 1984), 544.
10. Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism, 1789-1914 (New York, 1989), 117-20; A. M. Clarke, Life of Reverend Mother Mary of St. Euphrasia Pelletier: First Superior General of the Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (London, 1895), 145-6; and Claude Langlois, Le Catholicisme au Feminin: Les Congrégations Francaises à Supérieure Générale au XIXe Siècle (Paris, 1984), 544.
11. See manuscript federal censuses, 1860 and 1910.I use "sister" and "nun" interchangeably to describe any woman religious who took vows. "Order" and "community" are synonymous.
12. See Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1985), 143-4; Michael F. Funchion, "Irish Chicago: Church, Homeland, Politics, and Class - The Shaping of an Ethnic Group, 1870-1900," in Melvin Holli and Peter Jones, eds., Ethnic Chicago (Grand Rapids, 1984), 18; Charles Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics: The Evolution of an American Identity (Notre Dame, 1981), 237. Only Dolan acknowledges the role of nuns in Catholic immigrant life.
13. See Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1985), 143-4; Michael F. Funchion, "Irish Chicago: Church, Homeland, Politics, and Class - The Shaping of an Ethnic Group, 1870-1900," in Melvin Holli and Peter Jones, eds., Ethnic Chicago (Grand Rapids, 1984), 18; Charles Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics: The Evolution of an American Identity (Notre Dame, 1981), 237. Only Dolan acknowledges the role of nuns in Catholic immigrant life.
14. See Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1985), 143-4; Michael F. Funchion, "Irish Chicago: Church, Homeland, Politics, and Class - The Shaping of an Ethnic Group, 1870-1900," in Melvin Holli and Peter Jones, eds., Ethnic Chicago (Grand Rapids, 1984), 18; Charles Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics: The Evolution of an American Identity (Notre Dame, 1981), 237. Only Dolan acknowledges the role of nuns in Catholic immigrant life.
15. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
16. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
17. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
18. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
19. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
20. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
21. For representative samples and additional bibliography of new work since the 1970s, see Elizabeth Kolmer, A.S.C., "Catholic Women Religious and Women's History: A Survey of the Literature," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 639-51; Mary J. Dates, "Organized Voluntarism: The Catholic Sisters in Massachusetts, 1870-1940," American Quarterly 30 (Winter 1978), 652-80; Mary Ewens, The Role of the Nun in Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1978); Margaret Susan Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History: Catholic Sisters as a Case Study," in Philip R. Vandermeer and Robert P. Swierenga, eds., Belief & Behavior: Essays in the New Religious History (New Brunswick, 1991), 136-63; Suellen Hoy, "The Journey Out: The Recruitment and Emigration of Irish Religious Women to the United States, 1812-1914," Journal of Women's History 6 (Winter/Spring 1995), 64-98; and special issues of the U.S. Catholic Historian, 1986 and 1989. Ellen Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," in Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Skerrett, Michael F. Funchion, and Charles Fanning, eds., The Irish Catholic (Urbana, 1987), 22-60, examines Chicago women religious.
22. See "The Journey Out," esp. 88 n. 5, for how I arrived at 4,000 or 5,000. Sodalities were devotional and recreational.
23. Annals of the Monastery of Our Lady of the Good Shepherd: The First in America, Founded from the Mother House of Angers, France (Louisville, 1893), 8-24, and "He Had Compassion on Them " (St. Louis, 1927), 16, both likely written by a Good Shepherd Sister. On Bishop Flaget, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 119. A "postulant" lives in a convent, but in apprentice-like status.
24. Annals of the Monastery of Our Lady of the Good Shepherd: The First in America, Founded from the Mother House of Angers, France (Louisville, 1893), 8-24, and "He Had Compassion on Them " (St. Louis, 1927), 16, both likely written by a Good Shepherd Sister. On Bishop Flaget, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 119. A "postulant" lives in a convent, but in apprentice-like status.
25. Annals of the Monastery of Our Lady of the Good Shepherd: The First in America, Founded from the Mother House of Angers, France (Louisville, 1893), 8-24, and "He Had Compassion on Them " (St. Louis, 1927), 16, both likely written by a Good Shepherd Sister. On Bishop Flaget, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 119. A "postulant" lives in a convent, but in apprentice-like status.
26. Annals of the Monastery, 32; and "He Had Compassion on Them," 10-3, 25, 26, 49.
27. Annals of the Monastery, 32; and "He Had Compassion on Them," 10-3, 25, 26, 49.
28. Patricia Kelleher, "Gender Shapes Ethnicity: Ireland's Gender Systems and Chicago's Irish Americans" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1995), 348-9, found that in Chicago in 1880 "native white women made up the largest contingent among the prostitutes identified in the manuscript census" and that second-generation Irish and German women were "more likely" to become prostitutes than first-generation. Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, 1982), 139, found that "native-born women of foreign parentage were more likely to become prostitutes than were foreign-born women."
29. Patricia Kelleher, "Gender Shapes Ethnicity: Ireland's Gender Systems and Chicago's Irish Americans" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1995), 348-9, found that in Chicago in 1880 "native white women made up the largest contingent among the prostitutes identified in the manuscript census" and that second-generation Irish and German women were "more likely" to become prostitutes than first-generation. Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore, 1982), 139, found that "native-born women of foreign parentage were more likely to become prostitutes than were foreign-born women."
30. "He Had Compassion on Them, " 31-47.
31. Obituaries of Mother Mary of St. John the Baptist Jackson, Bulletin of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd of Angers 19 (June-August 1911), 235-44,
32. and Sister Mary of St. Philomene, (Chicago) New World, January 18, 1902.
33. Theodore J. Karamanski, Rally 'Round the Flag: Chicago and the Civil War (Chicago, 1993), xi-xii, 3-4.
34. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1986), 4-10. See also Tribune, June 6, 1859, and Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (New York, 1940), II, 380.
35. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1986), 4-10. See also Tribune, June 6, 1859, and Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (New York, 1940), II, 380.
36. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1986), 4-10. See also Tribune, June 6, 1859, and Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (New York, 1940), II, 380.
37. For Hughes, see Patrick Quinn, Banished Children of Eve (New York, 1994), 108, 141; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "The Perils of 'Passion and Poverty': Women Religious and the Care of Single Women in New York City, 1845-1890, " U.S. Catholic Historian 10, nos. 1 and 2 (1989), 49-50. Also Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics, 14-5; James Duggan, "Pastoral Letter," January 6, 1860, Madaj Collection, Archives of the Archdiocese of Chicago; and Tribune, April 7,1859.
38. For Hughes, see Patrick Quinn, Banished Children of Eve (New York, 1994), 108, 141; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "The Perils of 'Passion and Poverty': Women Religious and the Care of Single Women in New York City, 1845-1890, " U.S. Catholic Historian 10, nos. 1 and 2 (1989), 49-50. Also Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics, 14-5; James Duggan, "Pastoral Letter," January 6, 1860, Madaj Collection, Archives of the Archdiocese of Chicago; and Tribune, April 7,1859.
39. For Hughes, see Patrick Quinn, Banished Children of Eve (New York, 1994), 108, 141; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "The Perils of 'Passion and Poverty': Women Religious and the Care of Single Women in New York City, 1845-1890, " U.S. Catholic Historian 10, nos. 1 and 2 (1989), 49-50. Also Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics, 14-5; James Duggan, "Pastoral Letter," January 6, 1860, Madaj Collection, Archives of the Archdiocese of Chicago; and Tribune, April 7,1859.
40. For Hughes, see Patrick Quinn, Banished Children of Eve (New York, 1994), 108, 141; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "The Perils of 'Passion and Poverty': Women Religious and the Care of Single Women in New York City, 1845-1890, " U.S. Catholic Historian 10, nos. 1 and 2 (1989), 49-50. Also Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics, 14-5; James Duggan, "Pastoral Letter," January 6, 1860, Madaj Collection, Archives of the Archdiocese of Chicago; and Tribune, April 7,1859.
41. For Hughes, see Patrick Quinn, Banished Children of Eve (New York, 1994), 108, 141; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "The Perils of 'Passion and Poverty': Women Religious and the Care of Single Women in New York City, 1845-1890, " U.S. Catholic Historian 10, nos. 1 and 2 (1989), 49-50. Also Shanabruch, Chicago Catholics, 14-5; James Duggan, "Pastoral Letter," January 6, 1860, Madaj Collection, Archives of the Archdiocese of Chicago; and Tribune, April 7,1859.
42. Gilbert J. Garraghan, S. J., The Catholic Church in Chicago, 1673-1871: An Historical Sketch (Chicago, 1921), 207; Tribune, April 7, 1859; Chicago Daily Journal, June 28, 1859; "Special Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago); and McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 130.
43. Gilbert J. Garraghan, S. J., The Catholic Church in Chicago, 1673-1871: An Historical Sketch (Chicago, 1921), 207; Tribune, April 7, 1859; Chicago Daily Journal, June 28, 1859; "Special Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago); and McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 130.
44. Gilbert J. Garraghan, S. J., The Catholic Church in Chicago, 1673-1871: An Historical Sketch (Chicago, 1921), 207; Tribune, April 7, 1859; Chicago Daily Journal, June 28, 1859; "Special Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago); and McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 130.
45. Gilbert J. Garraghan, S. J., The Catholic Church in Chicago, 1673-1871: An Historical Sketch (Chicago, 1921), 207; Tribune, April 7, 1859; Chicago Daily Journal, June 28, 1859; "Special Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago); and McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 130.
46. Gilbert J. Garraghan, S. J., The Catholic Church in Chicago, 1673-1871: An Historical Sketch (Chicago, 1921), 207; Tribune, April 7, 1859; Chicago Daily Journal, June 28, 1859; "Special Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago); and McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 130.
47. On transforming Chicago's religious landscape, see Daniel Bluestone, Constructing Chicago (New Haven, 1991), 65-82.I interchange "Magdalen Asylum" and "House of the Good Shepherd," but most outsiders called this institution "Magdalen Asylum" before the fire of 1871 and "House of Good Shepherd" afterwards. The Protestant "Chicago Erring Woman's Refuge for Reform," founded in 1863, was called the "Erring Woman's Refuge"; in 1906 it became the "Chicago Refuge for Girls." Mary Linehan, "Vicious Circle: Prostitution, Reform and Public Policy in Chicago, 1830-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 1991), 60.
48. On transforming Chicago's religious landscape, see Daniel Bluestone, Constructing Chicago (New Haven, 1991), 65-82.I interchange "Magdalen Asylum" and "House of the Good Shepherd," but most outsiders called this institution "Magdalen Asylum" before the fire of 1871 and "House of Good Shepherd" afterwards. The Protestant "Chicago Erring Woman's Refuge for Reform," founded in 1863, was called the "Erring Woman's Refuge"; in 1906 it became the "Chicago Refuge for Girls." Mary Linehan, "Vicious Circle: Prostitution, Reform and Public Policy in Chicago, 1830-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 1991), 60.
49. Chicago Daily Journal, August 15, 1859; McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 129-30, Tribune, April 14, 1860; and Duggan, "Pastoral Letter."
50. Chicago Daily Journal, August 15, 1859; McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 129-30, Tribune, April 14, 1860; and Duggan, "Tastoral Letter."
51. Chicago Daily Journal, August 15, 1859; McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 129-30, Tribune, April 14, 1860; and Duggan, "Tastoral Letter."
52. Chicago Daily Journal, August 15, 1859; McGovern, Right Reverend John McMullen, 129-30, Tribune, April 14, 1860; and Duggan, "Tastoral Letter."
53. "Special Book of Annals"; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 201-2; Funchion, "Irish Chicago," 35-6; Timothy Walch, "Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee," Catholic Historical Review 64 (January 1978), 20-2; and Mary J. Oates, "Catholic Female Academies on the Frontier," U.S. Catholic Historian 12 (Fall 1994), 122, 127.
54. "Special Book of Annals"; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 201-2; Funchion, "Irish Chicago," 35-6; Timothy Walch, "Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee," Catholic Historical Review 64 (January 1978), 20-2; and Mary J. Oates, "Catholic Female Academies on the Frontier," U.S. Catholic Historian 12 (Fall 1994), 122, 127.
55. "Special Book of Annals"; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 201-2; Funchion, "Irish Chicago," 35-6; Timothy Walch, "Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee," Catholic Historical Review 64 (January 1978), 20-2; and Mary J. Oates, "Catholic Female Academies on the Frontier," U.S. Catholic Historian 12 (Fall 1994), 122, 127.
56. "Special Book of Annals"; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 201-2; Funchion, "Irish Chicago," 35-6; Timothy Walch, "Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee," Catholic Historical Review 64 (January 1978), 20-2; and Mary J. Oates, "Catholic Female Academies on the Frontier," U.S. Catholic Historian 12 (Fall 1994), 122, 127.
57. "Special Book of Annals"; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 201-2; Funchion, "Irish Chicago," 35-6; Timothy Walch, "Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee," Catholic Historical Review 64 (January 1978), 20-2; and Mary J. Oates, "Catholic Female Academies on the Frontier," U.S. Catholic Historian 12 (Fall 1994), 122, 127.
58. Joseph G. Mannard, "Maternity of the Spirit: Nuns and Domesticity in Antebellum America," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer 1986), 308; Catharine E. Beecher, "An Address to the Protestant Clergy of the United States," in The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children (New York, 1846), 32; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 59.
59. Joseph G. Mannard, "Maternity of the Spirit: Nuns and Domesticity in Antebellum America," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer 1986), 308; Catharine E. Beecher, "An Address to the Protestant Clergy of the United States," in The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children (New York, 1846), 32; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 59.
60. Joseph G. Mannard, "Maternity of the Spirit: Nuns and Domesticity in Antebellum America," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer 1986), 308; Catharine E. Beecher, "An Address to the Protestant Clergy of the United States," in The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children (New York, 1846), 32; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 59.
61. On non-Catholic, antebellum charitable institutions in Chicago, see Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago, 1995), 11. For more on Catholic charitable institutions, see Harry C. Koenig, S.T.D., ed., Cantos Christi Urget Nos: A History of the Offices, Agencies, and Institutions of the Archdiocese of Chicago (Chicago, 1981), 1, 899, 901-2.
62. On non-Catholic, antebellum charitable institutions in Chicago, see Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago, 1995), 11. For more on Catholic charitable institutions, see Harry C. Koenig, S.T.D., ed., Cantos Christi Urget Nos: A History of the Offices, Agencies, and Institutions of the Archdiocese of Chicago (Chicago, 1981), 1, 899, 901-2.
63. Karamanski, Rally 'Round the Flag, xii-xiii, 176, 178. See Tribune, July 20, 1864, for estimates of prostitutes and January 9, 1866, for the links between prostitution and poverty.
64. Karamanski, Rally 'Round the Flag, xii-xiii, 176, 178. See Tribune, July 20, 1864, for estimates of prostitutes and January 9, 1866, for the links between prostitution and poverty.
65. Tribune, February 3, 1865, and July 9, 1866; and Hasia Diner, Erin's Daughters in America (Baltimore, 1983), 136.
66. Tribune, February 3, 1865, and July 9, 1866; and Hasia Diner, Erin's Daughters in America (Baltimore, 1983), 136.
67. Anne M. Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery: Prostitutes in the American West, 1865-90 (Urbana, 1985), 65-6; Book of Customs: For the Use of the Religious of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (Angers, 1899), 295-9; and Coughlin, New Commandment, 46.
68. Anne M. Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery: Prostitutes in the American West, 1865-90 (Urbana, 1985), 65-6; Book of Customs: For the Use of the Religious of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (Angers, 1899), 295-9; and Coughlin, New Commandment, 46.
69. Anne M. Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery: Prostitutes in the American West, 1865-90 (Urbana, 1985), 65-6; Book of Customs: For the Use of the Religious of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd of Angers (Angers, 1899), 295-9; and Coughlin, New Commandment, 46.
70. "Red Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago), 3; this "second" book has a red cover and is larger than the "Special Book of Annals." See "He Had Compassion on Them, " 65; and obituary of Mother Mary of St. John, Bulletin, 241.
71. "Red Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago), 3; this "second" book has a red cover and is larger than the "Special Book of Annals." See "He Had Compassion on Them, " 65; and obituary of Mother Mary of St. John, Bulletin, 241.
72. "Red Book of Annals" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago), 3; this "second" book has a red cover and is larger than the "Special Book of Annals." See "He Had Compassion on Them, " 65; and obituary of Mother Mary of St. John, Bulletin, 241.
73. Draft letter of William J. Onahan to Bertha M. H. Palmer, c. 1892, William J. Onahan Papers, Archives of the University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana.
74. Chicago Times, September 23, 1867. In July 1866, eighteen sisters and eighty-nine inmates lived in the asylum. Tribune, July 9, 1866.
75. Chicago Times, September 23, 1867. In July 1866, eighteen sisters and eighty-nine inmates lived in the asylum. Tribune, July 9, 1866.
76. On the differences between Irish choir and lay sisters, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 1987), 82-91; and Hoy, "The Journey Out," 70-2.I have only "intermittent" figures for choir and lay sisters at the House of the Good Shepherd. In November 1887, of thirty-two sisters at the house, twenty-five were choir and seven were lay. See Inter Ocean, November 12, 1887. On Sister Martha Shine, see Inter Ocean, July 7, 1880; and a letter from Charles C. Copeland printed in New World, October 16, 1909.
77. On the differences between Irish choir and lay sisters, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 1987), 82-91; and Hoy, "The Journey Out," 70-2.I have only "intermittent" figures for choir and lay sisters at the House of the Good Shepherd. In November 1887, of thirty-two sisters at the house, twenty-five were choir and seven were lay. See Inter Ocean, November 12, 1887. On Sister Martha Shine, see Inter Ocean, July 7, 1880; and a letter from Charles C. Copeland printed in New World, October 16, 1909.
78. On the differences between Irish choir and lay sisters, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 1987), 82-91; and Hoy, "The Journey Out," 70-2.I have only "intermittent" figures for choir and lay sisters at the House of the Good Shepherd. In November 1887, of thirty-two sisters at the house, twenty-five were choir and seven were lay. See Inter Ocean, November 12, 1887. On Sister Martha Shine, see Inter Ocean, July 7, 1880; and a letter from Charles C. Copeland printed in New World, October 16, 1909.
79. On the differences between Irish choir and lay sisters, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 1987), 82-91; and Hoy, "The Journey Out," 70-2.I have only "intermittent" figures for choir and lay sisters at the House of the Good Shepherd. In November 1887, of thirty-two sisters at the house, twenty-five were choir and seven were lay. See Inter Ocean, November 12, 1887. On Sister Martha Shine, see Inter Ocean, July 7, 1880; and a letter from Charles C. Copeland printed in New World, October 16, 1909.
80. On the differences between Irish choir and lay sisters, see Caitriona Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 1987), 82-91; and Hoy, "The Journey Out," 70-2.I have only "intermittent" figures for choir and lay sisters at the House of the Good Shepherd. In November 1887, of thirty-two sisters at the house, twenty-five were choir and seven were lay. See Inter Ocean, November 12, 1887. On Sister Martha Shine, see Inter Ocean, July 7, 1880; and a letter from Charles C. Copeland printed in New World, October 16, 1909.
81. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
82. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
83. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
84. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
85. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
86. Photographs of these men are in Coughlin, New Commandment, 47, 51, 55. For biographical information, see Mary Onahan Gallery, Life of William J. Onahan: Stories of Men Who Made Chicago (Chicago, 1929); M. Sevina Pahorezki, O.S.F., The Social and Political Activities of William James Onahan (Washington, DC, 1942); New World, April 14, 1900, May 7, 1904; and obituary of Copeland in Libertyville Independent, June 28, 1923 . For early philanthropic endeavors of working-class Catholics, see Mary J. Oates, The Catholic Philanthropic Tradition (Bloomington, 1995), 19-45, esp. 23-4. Like nuns, Catholic lay women were discour-aged from entering the public arena; at fund-raisings they remained in the background.
87. "Red Book of Annals," 5-12; and Garraghan, Catholic Church in Chicago, 207. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 29-33, for controversies surrounding Bishop Duggan during this period.
88. "Red Book of Annals," 5-12; and Garraghan, Catholic Church in Chicago, 207. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 29-33, for controversies surrounding Bishop Duggan during this period.
89. "Red Book of Annals," 5-12; and Garraghan, Catholic Church in Chicago, 207. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 29-33, for controversies surrounding Bishop Duggan during this period.
90. "Red Book of Annals," 12.
91. Onahan and O'Hara agreed to split the fines equally between the two institutions but thought it unjust because "the number of inmates in the Good Shepherd House...[is]...on an average, five or six times greater than those in ... the Erring Woman's Refuge." Onahan, "Our Religious Orders: The Nuns of the Good Shepherd," Western Catholic, April 10, 1875. "An Act for the Benefit of the Chicago Erring Women's [sic] Refuge for Reform, and the House of the Good Shepherd, of Chicago," March 31, 1869, Laws of Illinois 1869: Private Laws, 1, 254-5; Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Chicago for the Municipal Year 1868-69, May 6, 1869, and May 31, 1869; and "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd of Chicago to the Honorable Legislature Assembled at Springfield" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1871).
92. Onahan and O'Hara agreed to split the fines equally between the two institutions but thought it unjust because "the number of inmates in the Good Shepherd House...[is]...on an average, five or six times greater than those in ... the Erring Woman's Refuge." Onahan, "Our Religious Orders: The Nuns of the Good Shepherd," Western Catholic, April 10, 1875. "An Act for the Benefit of the Chicago Erring Women's [sic] Refuge for Reform, and the House of the Good Shepherd, of Chicago," March 31, 1869, Laws of Illinois 1869: Private Laws, 1, 254-5; Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Chicago for the Municipal Year 1868-69, May 6, 1869, and May 31, 1869; and "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd of Chicago to the Honorable Legislature Assembled at Springfield" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1871).
93. Onahan and O'Hara agreed to split the fines equally between the two institutions but thought it unjust because "the number of inmates in the Good Shepherd House...[is]...on an average, five or six times greater than those in ... the Erring Woman's Refuge." Onahan, "Our Religious Orders: The Nuns of the Good Shepherd," Western Catholic, April 10, 1875. "An Act for the Benefit of the Chicago Erring Women's [sic] Refuge for Reform, and the House of the Good Shepherd, of Chicago," March 31, 1869, Laws of Illinois 1869: Private Laws, 1, 254-5; Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Chicago for the Municipal Year 1868-69, May 6, 1869, and May 31, 1869; and "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd of Chicago to the Honorable Legislature Assembled at Springfield" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1871).
94. Onahan and O'Hara agreed to split the fines equally between the two institutions but thought it unjust because "the number of inmates in the Good Shepherd House...[is]...on an average, five or six times greater than those in ... the Erring Woman's Refuge." Onahan, "Our Religious Orders: The Nuns of the Good Shepherd," Western Catholic, April 10, 1875. "An Act for the Benefit of the Chicago Erring Women's [sic] Refuge for Reform, and the House of the Good Shepherd, of Chicago," March 31, 1869, Laws of Illinois 1869: Private Laws, 1, 254-5; Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Chicago for the Municipal Year 1868-69, May 6, 1869, and May 31, 1869; and "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd of Chicago to the Honorable Legislature Assembled at Springfield" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1871).
95. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Erring Woman's Refuge of Chicago, Illinois (Chicago, 1877), 12; Erring Woman 's Refuge [and House of the Good Shepherd] v. City of Chicago, January 2, 1877, G. No. 23135, Circuit Court, Cook County; Tribune, January 3, 1877; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 78. The city finally paid each institution only $1,287. Tribune, January 14, 1877.
96. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Erring Woman's Refuge of Chicago, Illinois (Chicago, 1877), 12; Erring Woman 's Refuge [and House of the Good Shepherd] v. City of Chicago, January 2, 1877, G. No. 23135, Circuit Court, Cook County; Tribune, January 3, 1877; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 78. The city finally paid each institution only $1,287. Tribune, January 14, 1877.
97. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Erring Woman's Refuge of Chicago, Illinois (Chicago, 1877), 12; Erring Woman 's Refuge [and House of the Good Shepherd] v. City of Chicago, January 2, 1877, G. No. 23135, Circuit Court, Cook County; Tribune, January 3, 1877; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 78. The city finally paid each institution only $1,287. Tribune, January 14, 1877.
98. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Erring Woman's Refuge of Chicago, Illinois (Chicago, 1877), 12; Erring Woman 's Refuge [and House of the Good Shepherd] v. City of Chicago, January 2, 1877, G. No. 23135, Circuit Court, Cook County; Tribune, January 3, 1877; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 78. The city finally paid each institution only $1,287. Tribune, January 14, 1877.
99. Fifteenth Annual Report of the Erring Woman's Refuge of Chicago, Illinois (Chicago, 1877), 12; Erring Woman 's Refuge [and House of the Good Shepherd] v. City of Chicago, January 2, 1877, G. No. 23135, Circuit Court, Cook County; Tribune, January 3, 1877; and Linehan, "Vicious Circle," 78. The city finally paid each institution only $1,287. Tribune, January 14, 1877.
100. Chicago Times, April 29, June 3, July 25, 1869. See also "Red Book of Annals," 50-4, 134.
101. Chicago Times, April 29, June 3, July 25, 1869. See also "Red Book of Annals," 50-4, 134.
102. Tribune, August 9, 1869; "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd"; and "Register of the Benefactors of the Convent of the Good Shepherd of Chicago" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1863-1880). Contributors included Copeland, Brenan, Onahan, Ogden, O'Hara, Potter Palmer; many women gave $5. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 35-7.
103. Tribune, August 9, 1869; "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd"; and "Register of the Benefactors of the Convent of the Good Shepherd of Chicago" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1863-1880). Contributors included Copeland, Brenan, Onahan, Ogden, O'Hara, Potter Palmer; many women gave $5. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 35-7.
104. Tribune, August 9, 1869; "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd"; and "Register of the Benefactors of the Convent of the Good Shepherd of Chicago" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1863-1880). Contributors included Copeland, Brenan, Onahan, Ogden, O'Hara, Potter Palmer; many women gave $5. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 35-7.
105. Tribune, August 9, 1869; "Report of the House of the Good Shepherd"; and "Register of the Benefactors of the Convent of the Good Shepherd of Chicago" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, 1863-1880). Contributors included Copeland, Brenan, Onahan, Ogden, O'Hara, Potter Palmer; many women gave $5. See Skerrett, "The Catholic Dimension," 35-7.
106. Mother Mary Nativity to Mother General in Angers, December 20, 1871, copied in "Special Book of Annals"; and "The Chicago Fire," translated from Lettres Annuelles de la Société du Sacre Coeur, 1869-1871, National Archives, Society of the Sacred Heart, St Louis, I thank Elizabeth Parley, R.S.C.J., for this information. Mother Nativity said $118,000; Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration (Cincinnati, 1872), 293, list $90,000.
107. Mother Mary Nativity to Mother General in Angers, December 20, 1871, copied in "Special Book of Annals"; and "The Chicago Fire," translated from Lettres Annuelles de la Société du Sacre Coeur, 1869-1871, National Archives, Society of the Sacred Heart, St Louis, I thank Elizabeth Parley, R.S.C.J., for this information. Mother Nativity said $118,000; Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration (Cincinnati, 1872), 293, list $90,000.
108. Mother Mary Nativity to Mother General in Angers, December 20, 1871, copied in "Special Book of Annals"; and "The Chicago Fire," translated from Lettres Annuelles de la Société du Sacre Coeur, 1869-1871, National Archives, Society of the Sacred Heart, St Louis, I thank Elizabeth Parley, R.S.C.J., for this information. Mother Nativity said $118,000; Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration (Cincinnati, 1872), 293, list $90,000.
109. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refers to insurance and monies received but gives no amount. "Red Book of Annals," 158-63, and "Register of the Benefactors." The private Chicago Relief and Aid Society, run by Chicago's commercial elite, administered donations to victims. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874 (Chicago, 1995), 81. My figures are from "Register of Benefactors"; Relief and Aid Society recorded giving $17,400, not $27,025. See Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society to the Common Council of the City of Chicago: October 31, 1890, to October 31, 1891 (Chicago, 1891), 12,13.
110. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refers to insurance and monies received but gives no amount. "Red Book of Annals," 158-63, and "Register of the Benefactors." The private Chicago Relief and Aid Society, run by Chicago's commercial elite, administered donations to victims. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874 (Chicago, 1995), 81. My figures are from "Register of Benefactors"; Relief and Aid Society recorded giving $17,400, not $27,025. See Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society to the Common Council of the City of Chicago: October 31, 1890, to October 31, 1891 (Chicago, 1891), 12,13.
111. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refers to insurance and monies received but gives no amount. "Red Book of Annals," 158-63, and "Register of the Benefactors." The private Chicago Relief and Aid Society, run by Chicago's commercial elite, administered donations to victims. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874 (Chicago, 1995), 81. My figures are from "Register of Benefactors"; Relief and Aid Society recorded giving $17,400, not $27,025. See Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society to the Common Council of the City of Chicago: October 31, 1890, to October 31, 1891 (Chicago, 1891), 12,13.
112. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refers to insurance and monies received but gives no amount. "Red Book of Annals," 158-63, and "Register of the Benefactors." The private Chicago Relief and Aid Society, run by Chicago's commercial elite, administered donations to victims. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874 (Chicago, 1995), 81. My figures are from "Register of Benefactors"; Relief and Aid Society recorded giving $17,400, not $27,025. See Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society to the Common Council of the City of Chicago: October 31, 1890, to October 31, 1891 (Chicago, 1891), 12,13.
113. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refers to insurance and monies received but gives no amount. "Red Book of Annals," 158-63, and "Register of the Benefactors." The private Chicago Relief and Aid Society, run by Chicago's commercial elite, administered donations to victims. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874 (Chicago, 1995), 81. My figures are from "Register of Benefactors"; Relief and Aid Society recorded giving $17,400, not $27,025. See Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society to the Common Council of the City of Chicago: October 31, 1890, to October 31, 1891 (Chicago, 1891), 12,13.
114. "Red Book of Annals," 164-5; and Inter Ocean, June 8, 1872.
115. "Red Book of Annals," 164-5; and Inter Ocean, June 8, 1872.
116. "Red Book of Annals," 164, and Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refer to the sisters' devotion to St. Joseph. See Bluestone, Constructing Chicago, 94; and Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd, Otherwise Known as the Magdalen Asylum (Chicago, 1878), copy at House of the Good Shepherd.
117. "Red Book of Annals," 164, and Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refer to the sisters' devotion to St. Joseph. See Bluestone, Constructing Chicago, 94; and Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd, Otherwise Known as the Magdalen Asylum (Chicago, 1878), copy at House of the Good Shepherd.
118. "Red Book of Annals," 164, and Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refer to the sisters' devotion to St. Joseph. See Bluestone, Constructing Chicago, 94; and Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd, Otherwise Known as the Magdalen Asylum (Chicago, 1878), copy at House of the Good Shepherd.
119. "Red Book of Annals," 164, and Onahan, "Our Religious Orders," refer to the sisters' devotion to St. Joseph. See Bluestone, Constructing Chicago, 94; and Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd, Otherwise Known as the Magdalen Asylum (Chicago, 1878), copy at House of the Good Shepherd.
120. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders"; Joan Gittens, Poor Relations: The Children of the State in Illinois, 1818-1990 (Urbana, 1994), 1; and Inter Ocean and Tribune, August 12, 1878.
121. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders"; Joan Gittens, Poor Relations: The Children of the State in Illinois, 1818-1990 (Urbana, 1994), 1; and Inter Ocean and Tribune, August 12, 1878.
122. Onahan, "Our Religious Orders"; Joan Gittens, Poor Relations: The Children of the State in Illinois, 1818-1990 (Urbana, 1994), 1; and Inter Ocean and Tribune, August 12, 1878.
123. Inter Ocean, August 19 and 23, November 5, 1878. See also Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd for quote. The bazaar made between $10,000 and $12,000. Tribune, November 28, 1878, and Inter Ocean, June 13, 1879.
124. Inter Ocean, August 19 and 23, November 5, 1878. See also Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd for quote. The bazaar made between $10,000 and $12,000. Tribune, November 28, 1878, and Inter Ocean, June 13, 1879.
125. Inter Ocean, August 19 and 23, November 5, 1878. See also Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd for quote. The bazaar made between $10,000 and $12,000. Tribune, November 28, 1878, and Inter Ocean, June 13, 1879.
126. Inter Ocean, August 19 and 23, November 5, 1878. See also Appeal in Behalf of the House of the Good Shepherd for quote. The bazaar made between $10,000 and $12,000. Tribune, November 28, 1878, and Inter Ocean, June 13, 1879.
127. On the growth of private charitable institutions, see Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind, 39-41;
128. Koenig, Caritas Christi Urget Nos, 902-3; and A. T. Andreas, History of Chicago: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Chicago, 1886), III, 774.
129. Koenig, Caritas Christi Urget Nos, 902-3; and A. T. Andreas, History of Chicago: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Chicago, 1886), III, 774.
130. Tribune, March 7, 8, 10, and 12, 1879. Onahan, Brenan, and Copeland were among her fourteen pallbearers.
131. "Book of the Chapter" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago) lists the superiors. On Mother Angelique, see Bulletin of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd of Angers 18 (October 1910), 634-9, and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States: 1880 - Population (Washington, D.C., 1883).
132. "Book of the Chapter" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago) lists the superiors. On Mother Angelique, see Bulletin of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd of Angers 18 (October 1910), 634-9, and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States: 1880 - Population (Washington, D.C., 1883).
133. "Book of the Chapter" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago) lists the superiors. On Mother Angelique, see Bulletin of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd of Angers 18 (October 1910), 634-9, and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States: 1880 - Population (Washington, D.C., 1883).
134. On delinquent young women, see Mrs. Joseph T. Bowen, "The Delinquent Children of Immigrant Parents," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (Washington, D.C., 1909), 257. On the lack of decent
135. On delinquent young women, see Mrs. Joseph T. Bowen, "The Delinquent Children of Immigrant Parents," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (Washington, D.C., 1909), 257. On the lack of decent work for women in Chicago, see Tribune, February 12, April 13, 1888. Ethnicity figures are from the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census.
136. On delinquent young women, see Mrs. Joseph T. Bowen, "The Delinquent Children of Immigrant Parents," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (Washington, D.C., 1909), 257. On the lack of decent work for women in Chicago, see Tribune, February 12, April 13, 1888. Ethnicity figures are from the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census.
137. Sister Mary of St Marine Verger, Practical Rules for the Use of the Religious of the Good Shepherd for the Direction of the Classes (1897; reprinted St Paul, 1943), 69,126-7.
138. Jay P. Dolan, The Immigrant Church: New York's Irich and German Catholics, 1815-1865 (Baltimore, 1975), 122-3. Katz In the Shadow of the Poorhouse, 61-2, describes Catholic Charity as "heroic" as well as 'less judgmental, more ready to help, less quick to condemn" than Protestant efforts.
139. Martin J. Scott, S. J., Convent Life: The Meaning of a Religious Vocation (New York, 1919), 218; Verger, Practical Rules, 68, 220, 222; and Tribune, January 7, 1888.
140. Martin J. Scott, S. J., Convent Life: The Meaning of a Religious Vocation (New York, 1919), 218; Verger, Practical Rules, 68, 220, 222; and Tribune, January 7, 1888.
141. Martin J. Scott, S. J., Convent Life: The Meaning of a Religious Vocation (New York, 1919), 218; Verger, Practical Rules, 68, 220, 222; and Tribune, January 7, 1888.
142. Verger, Practical Rules, 176-7, 182-3, 186, 188.
143. For examples, see ibid., 67, 68. See also Maria Luddy, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Cambridge, 1995), 124-7. On conflicts between immigrant daughters and parents, see Mary E. Odem, " 'This Terrible Freedom': Generational Conflicts in Working-Class Families," in Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent and Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 157-84.
144. For examples, see ibid., 67, 68. See also Maria Luddy, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Cambridge, 1995), 124-7. On conflicts between immigrant daughters and parents, see Mary E. Odem, " 'This Terrible Freedom': Generational Conflicts in Working-Class Families," in Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent and Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 157-84.
145. For examples, see ibid., 67, 68. See also Maria Luddy, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Cambridge, 1995), 124-7. On conflicts between immigrant daughters and parents, see Mary E. Odem, " 'This Terrible Freedom': Generational Conflicts in Working-Class Families," in Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent and Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 157-84.
146. See Linehan, "Vicious Circle," for weddings at the refuge. For single women in the family economy, see Janet A. Nolan, Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885-1920 (Lexington, 1989), 70-1; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 136-7; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns and the Development of New York City's Welfare System, 1840-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1992), 303-4.
147. See Linehan, "Vicious Circle," for weddings at the refuge. For single women in the family economy, see Janet A. Nolan, Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885-1920 (Lexington, 1989), 70-1; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 136-7; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns and the Development of New York City's Welfare System, 1840-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1992), 303-4.
148. See Linehan, "Vicious Circle," for weddings at the refuge. For single women in the family economy, see Janet A. Nolan, Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885-1920 (Lexington, 1989), 70-1; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 136-7; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns and the Development of New York City's Welfare System, 1840-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1992), 303-4.
149. See Linehan, "Vicious Circle," for weddings at the refuge. For single women in the family economy, see Janet A. Nolan, Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885-1920 (Lexington, 1989), 70-1; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 136-7; and Maureen Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns and the Development of New York City's Welfare System, 1840-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1992), 303-4.
150. Jane Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 1868-1908 (Dublin, 1989), 41-5, 56-7, 89; Mary Carpenter, Reformatory School: For the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile Offenders (London, 1851), 80; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 51, 122-3.
151. Jane Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 1868-1908 (Dublin, 1989), 41-5, 56-7, 89; Mary Carpenter, Reformatory School: For the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile Offenders (London, 1851), 80; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 51, 122-3.
152. Jane Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 1868-1908 (Dublin, 1989), 41-5, 56-7, 89; Mary Carpenter, Reformatory School: For the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile Offenders (London, 1851), 80; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 51, 122-3.
153. Mother Austin Carroll, "Joanna Reddan," Irish Monthly 20 (May 1892), 229; Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, 58-9; Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 83, 88-99; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 122.
154. Mother Austin Carroll, "Joanna Reddan," Irish Monthly 20 (May 1892), 229; Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, 58-9; Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 83, 88-99; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 122.
155. Mother Austin Carroll, "Joanna Reddan," Irish Monthly 20 (May 1892), 229; Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, 58-9; Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 83, 88-99; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 122.
156. Mother Austin Carroll, "Joanna Reddan," Irish Monthly 20 (May 1892), 229; Clear, Nuns in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, 58-9; Barnes, Irish Industrial Schools, 83, 88-99; and Luddy, Women and Philanthropy, 122.
157. Arlien Johnson, Public Policy and Private Charities: A Study of Legislation in the United States and of Administration in Illinois (Chicago, 1931), 95-6; and James Brown, The History of Public Assistance in Chicago 1833 to 1893 (Chicago, 1941), 165-6.
158. Arlien Johnson, Public Policy and Private Charities: A Study of Legislation in the United States and of Administration in Illinois (Chicago, 1931), 95-6; and James Brown, The History of Public Assistance in Chicago 1833 to 1893 (Chicago, 1941), 165-6.
159. Johnson, Public Policy, 97; Dorothy Thomas, "Myra Colby Bradwell," in Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer, eds., Notable American Women, 1607-1950: A Biographical Dictionary (Cambridge, 1971), 1, 223-5. "Act to Aid Industrial Schools for Girls," Laws of the State of Illinois: Enacted by the Thirty-First General Assembly (Springfield, 1879), 309-13.
160. Johnson, Public Policy, 97; Dorothy Thomas, "Myra Colby Bradwell," in Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer, eds., Notable American Women, 1607-1950: A Biographical Dictionary (Cambridge, 1971), 1, 223-5. "Act to Aid Industrial Schools for Girls," Laws of the State of Illinois: Enacted by the Thirty-First General Assembly (Springfield, 1879), 309-13.
161. Johnson, Public Policy, 97; Dorothy Thomas, "Myra Colby Bradwell," in Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul S. Boyer, eds., Notable American Women, 1607-1950: A Biographical Dictionary (Cambridge, 1971), 1, 223-5. "Act to Aid Industrial Schools for Girls," Laws of the State of Illinois: Enacted by the Thirty-First General Assembly (Springfield, 1879), 309-13.
162. Tribune and Inter Ocean, May 8, 1878; and "Act to Aid Industrial Schools for Girls," 313.
163. Tribune and Inter Ocean, May 8, 1878; and "Act to Aid Industrial Schools for Girls," 313.
164. Bowen quoted in Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1977), 91.
165. Ninth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Chanties of the State of Illinois for 1886 (Springfield, 1887), 52, 75, 79; and Tribune, January 29, February 15, 1887.
166. Ninth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Chanties of the State of Illinois for 1886 (Springfield, 1887), 52, 75, 79; and Tribune, January 29, February 15, 1887.
167. Tenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1888 (Springfield, 1888), 82, 132. For the outcome, see Tribune, February 12, 1888.
168. Tenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1888 (Springfield, 1888), 82, 132. For the outcome, see Tribune, February 12, 1888.
169. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
170. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
171. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
172. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
173. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
174. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
175. Bliss quoted in Tribune, September 30, 1899. For ruling, see Cook County v. Chicago Industrial School for Girls, 125 IL 540 (1888), 191, 193. An "Abstract of Record" and "Transcript" are in the Illinois State Archives, Springfield. 61. Tribune, October 2, 1888. See also Platt, Child Savers, 116; Johnson, Public Policy, 106-9; Tribune, March 18, April 1, 1891; and "Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Chicago Industrial School for Girls," in Diamond Jubilee of the Archdiocese of Chicago (1920), 754. The Chicago Industrial School obtained a county contract in 1891, through the efforts of board members General George W. Smith and Thomas Brenan. Smith's testimony appears in the "Abstract of Record" cited above.
176. Quotations, except for the last two, from Twelfth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1892 (Springfield, 1893), 181-3; Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970), 1230; and "Section 17" of Illinois Juvenile Court Law in T. D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law: Juvenile Courts and What They Have Accomplished (Chicago, 1907), 132-3.
177. Quotations, except for the last two, from Twelfth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1892 (Springfield, 1893), 181-3; Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970), 1230; and "Section 17" of Illinois Juvenile Court Law in T. D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law: Juvenile Courts and What They Have Accomplished (Chicago, 1907), 132-3.
178. Quotations, except for the last two, from Twelfth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1892 (Springfield, 1893), 181-3; Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970), 1230; and "Section 17" of Illinois Juvenile Court Law in T. D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law: Juvenile Courts and What They Have Accomplished (Chicago, 1907), 132-3.
179. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform," 1226-9; Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 13-25; First Annual Report of the Visitation and Aid Society (Chicago, 1890), 5; and T. D. Hurley, New World, November 26, 1898.
180. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform," 1226-9; Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 13-25; First Annual Report of the Visitation and Aid Society (Chicago, 1890), 5; and T. D. Hurley, New World, November 26, 1898.
181. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform," 1226-9; Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 13-25; First Annual Report of the Visitation and Aid Society (Chicago, 1890), 5; and T. D. Hurley, New World, November 26, 1898.
182. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform," 1226-9; Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 13-25; First Annual Report of the Visitation and Aid Society (Chicago, 1890), 5; and T. D. Hurley, New World, November 26, 1898.
183. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 9; New World, December 14, 1901; Robert M. Mennel, Thorns & Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, 1973), 132; Thirty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Inspectors of the House of Correction of the City of Chicago and of the Superintendent, City Physician and House Physician for the Year 1903 (Chicago, 1904), 8; and Johnson, Public Policy, 203.
184. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 9; New World, December 14, 1901; Robert M. Mennel, Thorns & Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, 1973), 132; Thirty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Inspectors of the House of Correction of the City of Chicago and of the Superintendent, City Physician and House Physician for the Year 1903 (Chicago, 1904), 8; and Johnson, Public Policy, 203.
185. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 9; New World, December 14, 1901; Robert M. Mennel, Thorns & Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, 1973), 132; Thirty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Inspectors of the House of Correction of the City of Chicago and of the Superintendent, City Physician and House Physician for the Year 1903 (Chicago, 1904), 8; and Johnson, Public Policy, 203.
186. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 9; New World, December 14, 1901; Robert M. Mennel, Thorns & Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, 1973), 132; Thirty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Inspectors of the House of Correction of the City of Chicago and of the Superintendent, City Physician and House Physician for the Year 1903 (Chicago, 1904), 8; and Johnson, Public Policy, 203.
187. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 9; New World, December 14, 1901; Robert M. Mennel, Thorns & Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, 1973), 132; Thirty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Inspectors of the House of Correction of the City of Chicago and of the Superintendent, City Physician and House Physician for the Year 1903 (Chicago, 1904), 8; and Johnson, Public Policy, 203.
188. See Meredith Tax, The Rising of the Women: Feminist Solidarity and Class Conflict, 1880-1917 (New York, 1980), 87, and unidentified newspaper clipping, 1894, Thomas J. and Elizabeth Morgan Collection, Book 2 (Scrapbooks), Illinois Historical Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana.
189. See Tax, Rising of the Women, esp. 66-7, 69.
190. The alliance inspected the House of the Good Shepherd and reported it is "a necessity, and that it is well managed.... open-hearted and frank explanation of every detail we inquired into ... was given us by the mother superior" and that "the management was everything to be desired." Unidentified clipping, [August or September] 1889, Morgan Collection, Book 2. See Tribune, August 3, 1889. On sectarianism, see three unidentified clippings May, June, and August 1889, Morgan Collection, Book 2.
191. Coughlin, New Commandment, 102, gives the sisters' brief version; Tribune, December 17, 18, 1890, has longer version. Mother Holy Cross's statement in unidentified clipping, January 1891, Morgan Collection, Book 2. Fannie C. Kavanaugh, a convent-educated Toronto native, insisted the alliance was "not entering into this thing because the House of the Good Shepherd is a Catholic institution." Tax, Rising of the Women, 87, notes that the "final episode in the Alliance's demise seems to have been its opposition to Kate Bradley's candidacy for the board of education... [because] she had been reared in a convent"
192. Coughlin, New Commandment, 102, gives the sisters' brief version; Tribune, December 17, 18, 1890, has longer version. Mother Holy Cross's statement in unidentified clipping, January 1891, Morgan Collection, Book 2. Fannie C. Kavanaugh, a convent-educated Toronto native, insisted the alliance was "not entering into this thing because the House of the Good Shepherd is a Catholic institution." Tax, Rising of the Women, 87, notes that the "final episode in the Alliance's demise seems to have been its opposition to Kate Bradley's candidacy for the board of education... [because] she had been reared in a convent"
193. Coughlin, New Commandment, 102, gives the sisters' brief version; Tribune, December 17, 18, 1890, has longer version. Mother Holy Cross's statement in unidentified clipping, January 1891, Morgan Collection, Book 2. Fannie C. Kavanaugh, a convent-educated Toronto native, insisted the alliance was "not entering into this thing because the House of the Good Shepherd is a Catholic institution." Tax, Rising of the Women, 87, notes that the "final episode in the Alliance's demise seems to have been its opposition to Kate Bradley's candidacy for the board of education... [because] she had been reared in a convent"
194. Prendergast and Kavanaugh in Tribune, December 17, 1890.
195. Dolan, The Immigrant Church, 133; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 106-7; and Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery, 152.
196. Dolan, The Immigrant Church, 133; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 106-7; and Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery, 152.
197. Dolan, The Immigrant Church, 133; Diner, Erin's Daughters, 106-7; and Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery, 152.
198. First quotation is from Coughlin, New Commandment, 102. 1891 statistics are from Illinois Conference of Charities and Corrections, Hand-Book of Chicago's Charities (Chicago, 1892), 80. Thomas Brenan handled the property purchase. See "Loan to the House of the Good Shepherd/Resolution for Members" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, March 27, 1892); and Inter Ocean, December 13, 1892.
199. First quotation is from Coughlin, New Commandment, 102. 1891 statistics are from Illinois Conference of Charities and Corrections, Hand-Book of Chicago's Charities (Chicago, 1892), 80. Thomas Brenan handled the property purchase. See "Loan to the House of the Good Shepherd/Resolution for Members" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, March 27, 1892); and Inter Ocean, December 13, 1892.
200. First quotation is from Coughlin, New Commandment, 102. 1891 statistics are from Illinois Conference of Charities and Corrections, Hand-Book of Chicago's Charities (Chicago, 1892), 80. Thomas Brenan handled the property purchase. See "Loan to the House of the Good Shepherd/Resolution for Members" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, March 27, 1892); and Inter Ocean, December 13, 1892.
201. First quotation is from Coughlin, New Commandment, 102. 1891 statistics are from Illinois Conference of Charities and Corrections, Hand-Book of Chicago's Charities (Chicago, 1892), 80. Thomas Brenan handled the property purchase. See "Loan to the House of the Good Shepherd/Resolution for Members" (unpublished, House of the Good Shepherd, Chicago, March 27, 1892); and Inter Ocean, December 13, 1892.
202. Tribune, December 20, 1896, and New World, December 26, 1896.
203. Tribune, December 20, 1896, and New World, December 26, 1896.
204. Unlike settlement workers, nuns did not go out looking for a neighborhood in which to begin their work; their homes were always in the urban, immigrant neighborhoods they served. Until 1880 the Little Sisters of the Poor even occupied the building that later became Hull-House. Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (Urbana, 1990 ed.), 54-7. Available documents do not reveal the exact number of individuals cared for during its first fifty years. Coughlin, New Commandment, 154, says more than 18,000 females from 1859 to 1909. Of 1,416 females, in its first ten years the juvenile court sent 609 to the House and 371 to the Protestant Refuge. Sophonisba P. Breckinridge and Edith Abbott, The Delinquent Child and the Home: A Study of the Delinquent Wards of the Juvenile Court of Chicago (New York, 1912), 40.
205. Unlike settlement workers, nuns did not go out looking for a neighborhood in which to begin their work; their homes were always in the urban, immigrant neighborhoods they served. Until 1880 the Little Sisters of the Poor even occupied the building that later became Hull-House. Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (Urbana, 1990 ed.), 54-7. Available documents do not reveal the exact number of individuals cared for during its first fifty years. Coughlin, New Commandment, 154, says more than 18,000 females from 1859 to 1909. Of 1,416 females, in its first ten years the juvenile court sent 609 to the House and 371 to the Protestant Refuge. Sophonisba P. Breckinridge and Edith Abbott, The Delinquent Child and the Home: A Study of the Delinquent Wards of the Juvenile Court of Chicago (New York, 1912), 40.
206. Unlike settlement workers, nuns did not go out looking for a neighborhood in which to begin their work; their homes were always in the urban, immigrant neighborhoods they served. Until 1880 the Little Sisters of the Poor even occupied the building that later became Hull-House. Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (Urbana, 1990 ed.), 54-7. Available documents do not reveal the exact number of individuals cared for during its first fifty years. Coughlin, New Commandment, 154, says more than 18,000 females from 1859 to 1909. Of 1,416 females, in its first ten years the juvenile court sent 609 to the House and 371 to the Protestant Refuge. Sophonisba P. Breckinridge and Edith Abbott, The Delinquent Child and the Home: A Study of the Delinquent Wards of the Juvenile Court of Chicago (New York, 1912), 40.
207. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
208. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
209. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
210. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
211. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
212. For sale of property and new quarters, see Chicago Record-Herald, November 26, 1904, January 12, 1905. On opposition to large institutions, see Gittens, Poor Relations, 31-2, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities of the State of Illinois for 1898 (Springfield, 1899), 66-7. Fitzgerald, "Irish-Catholic Nuns," 550-2, argues that much opposition came from Protestant reformers in New York City who had lost control of public welfare to Catholic nuns. See also Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 133-4. Cities only slowly changed their way of dealing with sexually deviant women. See Marian J. Mortorn, "Seduced and Abandoned in an American City: Cleveland and Its Fallen Women, 1869-1936," Journal of Urban History 11 (August 1985), 463. Cmiel, ËHome of Another Kind, 53-5, 61-3, claims managers of the Chicago Nursery and Half-Orphan Asylum resisted new standards of care advocated by welfare reformers, fearing they would lose control of their institution.
213. The challenge was evident by 1894. The Tribune, September 16, 1894, lauded Hull-House and other settlements with no mention of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women 's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, 1995), 171-205, describes life at Hull-House. See also Louise C. Wade, "The Social Gospel Impulse and Chicago Settlement-House Founders," Register (of the Chicago Theological Seminary) 55 (April 1965), 1-12; I thank Louise Wade, author of a forthcoming biography of McDowell, for this article. See also William T. Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago (Chicago, 1894), 412.
214. The challenge was evident by 1894. The Tribune, September 16, 1894, lauded Hull-House and other settlements with no mention of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women 's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, 1995), 171-205, describes life at Hull-House. See also Louise C. Wade, "The Social Gospel Impulse and Chicago Settlement-House Founders," Register (of the Chicago Theological Seminary) 55 (April 1965), 1-12; I thank Louise Wade, author of a forthcoming biography of McDowell, for this article. See also William T. Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago (Chicago, 1894), 412.
215. The challenge was evident by 1894. The Tribune, September 16, 1894, lauded Hull-House and other settlements with no mention of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women 's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, 1995), 171-205, describes life at Hull-House. See also Louise C. Wade, "The Social Gospel Impulse and Chicago Settlement-House Founders," Register (of the Chicago Theological Seminary) 55 (April 1965), 1-12; I thank Louise Wade, author of a forthcoming biography of McDowell, for this article. See also William T. Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago (Chicago, 1894), 412.
216. The challenge was evident by 1894. The Tribune, September 16, 1894, lauded Hull-House and other settlements with no mention of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women 's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, 1995), 171-205, describes life at Hull-House. See also Louise C. Wade, "The Social Gospel Impulse and Chicago Settlement-House Founders," Register (of the Chicago Theological Seminary) 55 (April 1965), 1-12; I thank Louise Wade, author of a forthcoming biography of McDowell, for this article. See also William T. Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago (Chicago, 1894), 412.
217. In Coughlin, New Commandment, 13, 23, 27, 80-4, the sisters articulate purpose of their works as the temporal and spiritual care of "lost sheep." Provincial superior and Mary McDowell quoted, respectively, in Sisters of the Good Shepherd, "Book of the Chapter," 45; and Wade, "The Social Gospel Impulse," 7.
218. On Irish American Catholics, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 339-40; on bishops and benefactors, see Patricia Byrne, C.S.J., "Sisters of St. Joseph: The Americanization of a French Tradition," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Fall 1986), 271; and Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 125-6, 132-3. A Good Shepherd Woman's Auxiliary formed only in 1907. Coughlin, New Commandment, 125-35, 163-72, lists auxiliary members' male benefactors. See also Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History," 136-63.
219. On Irish American Catholics, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 339-40; on bishops and benefactors, see Patricia Byrne, C.S.J., "Sisters of St. Joseph: The Americanization of a French Tradition," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Fall 1986), 271; and Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 125-6, 132-3. A Good Shepherd Woman's Auxiliary formed only in 1907. Coughlin, New Commandment, 125-35, 163-72, lists auxiliary members' male benefactors. See also Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History," 136-63.
220. On Irish American Catholics, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 339-40; on bishops and benefactors, see Patricia Byrne, C.S.J., "Sisters of St. Joseph: The Americanization of a French Tradition," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Fall 1986), 271; and Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 125-6, 132-3. A Good Shepherd Woman's Auxiliary formed only in 1907. Coughlin, New Commandment, 125-35, 163-72, lists auxiliary members' male benefactors. See also Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History," 136-63.
221. On Irish American Catholics, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 339-40; on bishops and benefactors, see Patricia Byrne, C.S.J., "Sisters of St. Joseph: The Americanization of a French Tradition," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Fall 1986), 271; and Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 125-6, 132-3. A Good Shepherd Woman's Auxiliary formed only in 1907. Coughlin, New Commandment, 125-35, 163-72, lists auxiliary members' male benefactors. See also Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History," 136-63.
222. On Irish American Catholics, see Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 339-40; on bishops and benefactors, see Patricia Byrne, C.S.J., "Sisters of St. Joseph: The Americanization of a French Tradition," U.S. Catholic Historian 5 (Summer/Fall 1986), 271; and Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 125-6, 132-3. A Good Shepherd Woman's Auxiliary formed only in 1907. Coughlin, New Commandment, 125-35, 163-72, lists auxiliary members' male benefactors. See also Thompson, "Women, Feminism, and the New Religious History," 136-63.
223. The clergy's efforts to control the lives and work of sisters were "buttressed further by a 1917 revision of the code of canon law governing women religious." Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 86-7. See also The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions with Recommendations by the Vice Committee of Chicago (Chicago, 1911); Joanne L. Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth-Century Chicago," Gender & History 4 (Autumn 1992), 323-42; Record-Herald, May 12, 1911; and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, ed., The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conferences Held During the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago, 1912).
224. The clergy's efforts to control the lives and work of sisters were "buttressed further by a 1917 revision of the code of canon law governing women religious." Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 86-7. See also The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions with Recommendations by the Vice Committee of Chicago (Chicago, 1911); Joanne L. Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth-Century Chicago," Gender & History 4 (Autumn 1992), 323-42; Record-Herald, May 12, 1911; and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, ed., The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conferences Held During the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago, 1912).
225. The clergy's efforts to control the lives and work of sisters were "buttressed further by a 1917 revision of the code of canon law governing women religious." Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 86-7. See also The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions with Recommendations by the Vice Committee of Chicago (Chicago, 1911); Joanne L. Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth-Century Chicago," Gender & History 4 (Autumn 1992), 323-42; Record-Herald, May 12, 1911; and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, ed., The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conferences Held During the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago, 1912).
226. The clergy's efforts to control the lives and work of sisters were "buttressed further by a 1917 revision of the code of canon law governing women religious." Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 86-7. See also The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions with Recommendations by the Vice Committee of Chicago (Chicago, 1911); Joanne L. Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth-Century Chicago," Gender & History 4 (Autumn 1992), 323-42; Record-Herald, May 12, 1911; and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, ed., The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conferences Held During the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago, 1912).
227. The clergy's efforts to control the lives and work of sisters were "buttressed further by a 1917 revision of the code of canon law governing women religious." Oates, Catholic Philanthropic Tradition, 86-7. See also The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions with Recommendations by the Vice Committee of Chicago (Chicago, 1911); Joanne L. Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth-Century Chicago," Gender & History 4 (Autumn 1992), 323-42; Record-Herald, May 12, 1911; and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, ed., The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conferences Held During the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago, 1912).