The "lodge practice evil" reconsidered: Medical care through fraternal societies, 1900-1930

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 23, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 569-600

  Beito, David T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEALTHCARE; MASONS; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY;

USA;

EID: 0031401007     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429702300502     Document Type: Review

References (168)

1. My upcoming book, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1940, will delve more deeply into this subject.
2. The estimates for fraternal society membership are from President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States, vol. 2 (New York, 1933), 935-6. The population statistics for Americans over age twenty are in U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1970, pt, 1 (Washington, D.C., 1975), 15-20.
3. The estimates for fraternal society membership are from President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States, vol. 2 (New York, 1933), 935-6. The population statistics for Americans over age twenty are in U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1970, pt, 1 (Washington, D.C., 1975), 15-20.
4. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
5. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
6. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
7. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
8. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
9. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
10. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
11. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
12. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
13. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
14. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
15. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
16. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
17. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book: Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1916-1917, (Tuskegee, 1916), 397. For more on the general subject of fraternal societies, see Robert Whaples and David Buffum, "Fraternalism, Paternalism, the Family, and the Market: Insurance a Century Ago," Social Science History, 15 (Spring 1991), 97-102; Susan D. Greenbaum, "Economic Cooperation Among Urban Industrial Workers: Rationality and Community in an Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Society, 1904-1927," Social Science History 17 (Summer 1993), 173-93; Jewish Hometown Associations and Family Circles in New York: The WPA Yiddish Writers' Group Study, ed. Hannah Kliger (Bloomington, 1992); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton, 1989); Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, 1989); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984); Don Harrison Doyle, The Social Order of a Frontier Commnunity, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1825-70 (Urbana, 1978); David Thelen, Paths of Resistance: Tradition and Dignity in Industrializing Missouri (New York, 1986); and Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990). Faced with liability suits, some businesses created establishment funds, usually financed by a combination of employer and employee contributions. With a few exceptions, these funds provided cash sick benefits rather than the services of a doctor. See Robert Asher, "The Limits of Big Business Paternalism: Relief for Injured Workers in the Years Before Workmen's Compensation," in Dying for Work: Workers'Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington, 1987), 19-33. On those varieties of contract practice under which employers hired doctors on salary to treat their workers, see Pierce Williams, The Purchase of Medical Care Through Fixed Periodic Payment (New York, 1932), 58-251; Jerome L. Schwartz, "The History of Prepaid Medical Care Plans," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 39 (September-October 1965), 455-63; and Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago, 1976), 92-102.
18. Albert C. Stevens, The Cyclopedia of Fraternities (New York, 1907), 117; and Michael R. Weisser, A Brotherhood of Memory: Jewish Landsmanshaftn in the New World (New York, 1985), 101-3.
19. Albert C. Stevens, The Cyclopedia of Fraternities (New York, 1907), 117; and Michael R. Weisser, A Brotherhood of Memory: Jewish Landsmanshaftn in the New World (New York, 1985), 101-3.
20. Report of the Health Insurance Commission of the State of Illinois (1919), 218; Anna Kalet, "Voluntary Health Insurance in the United States," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (June 1916), 149; Michael M. Davis Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, 1921), 100-1; and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Existing Agencies for Health Insurance in the United States," in U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin, Number 212, (June 1917), 465-7. For more on union-sponsored health care in the West, especially hospitalization, see Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, 1988).
21. Report of the Health Insurance Commission of the State of Illinois (1919), 218; Anna Kalet, "Voluntary Health Insurance in the United States," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (June 1916), 149; Michael M. Davis Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, 1921), 100-1; and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Existing Agencies for Health Insurance in the United States," in U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin, Number 212, (June 1917), 465-7. For more on union-sponsored health care in the West, especially hospitalization, see Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, 1988).
22. Report of the Health Insurance Commission of the State of Illinois (1919), 218; Anna Kalet, "Voluntary Health Insurance in the United States," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (June 1916), 149; Michael M. Davis Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, 1921), 100-1; and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Existing Agencies for Health Insurance in the United States," in U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin, Number 212, (June 1917), 465-7. For more on union-sponsored health care in the West, especially hospitalization, see Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, 1988).
23. Report of the Health Insurance Commission of the State of Illinois (1919), 218; Anna Kalet, "Voluntary Health Insurance in the United States," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (June 1916), 149; Michael M. Davis Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, 1921), 100-1; and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Existing Agencies for Health Insurance in the United States," in U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin, Number 212, (June 1917), 465-7. For more on union-sponsored health care in the West, especially hospitalization, see Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, 1988).
24. Report of the Health Insurance Commission of the State of Illinois (1919), 218; Anna Kalet, "Voluntary Health Insurance in the United States," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (June 1916), 149; Michael M. Davis Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, 1921), 100-1; and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Existing Agencies for Health Insurance in the United States," in U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin, Number 212, (June 1917), 465-7. For more on union-sponsored health care in the West, especially hospitalization, see Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, 1988).
25. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York, 1982), 209; Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America" in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1985), 233; and George Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875-1941 (Philadelphia, 1983), 101-7.
26. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York, 1982), 209; Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America" in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1985), 233; and George Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875-1941 (Philadelphia, 1983), 101-7.
27. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York, 1982), 209; Ronald L. Numbers, "The Third Party: Health Insurance in America" in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1985), 233; and George Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875-1941 (Philadelphia, 1983), 101-7.
28. "Discussion, Dr. Henry B. Hemenway, Evanston, Ill.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine, 10 (December 1909), 635; Albert T. Lytle, "Contract Medical Practice: An Economic Study," New York Journal of Medicine, 15 (March 1915), 107; and S. S. Goldwater, "Dispensaries: A Growing Factor in Curative and Preventive Medicine," The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 172 (April 29, 1915), 614.
29. "Discussion, Dr. Henry B. Hemenway, Evanston, Ill.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine, 10 (December 1909), 635; Albert T. Lytle, "Contract Medical Practice: An Economic Study," New York Journal of Medicine, 15 (March 1915), 107; and S. S. Goldwater, "Dispensaries: A Growing Factor in Curative and Preventive Medicine," The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 172 (April 29, 1915), 614.
30. "Discussion, Dr. Henry B. Hemenway, Evanston, Ill.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine, 10 (December 1909), 635; Albert T. Lytle, "Contract Medical Practice: An Economic Study," New York Journal of Medicine, 15 (March 1915), 107; and S. S. Goldwater, "Dispensaries: A Growing Factor in Curative and Preventive Medicine," The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 172 (April 29, 1915), 614.
31. George E. Holtzapple, "Lodge Practice," The Pennsylvania Medical Journal 11 (April 1908), 530-3. For the lodge membership of McKeesport, I counted as 1,000 the notation that listed the numerical strength of lodges other than the Foresters and the Fraternal Order of Eagles as "possibly a few thousand."
32. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
33. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
34. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
35. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
36. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
37. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
38. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
39. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
40. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
41. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
42. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
43. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in
44. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
45. Holtzapple, 530-3; and Horace M. Alleman, "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 15 (December 1911), 225. To estimate the total number of adult males in each locality in 1907, I subtracted three years worth of increase from the 1910 census figure using 1900 as my base. U.S., Census Office, Twelfth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1900: Population, vol. II, pt. II (Washington, D.C., 1902), 240-4; U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Population, vol. III (Washington, D.C., 1913), 586-611. The medical fees paid by fraternal society members in Pennsylvania were comparable to those in the rest of the country. See James G. Burrow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era: The Move Toward Monopoly (Baltimore, 1977), 121-3; Kalet, 150-1; W.F. Zierath, "Contract Practice," Wisconsin Medical Journal 6 (August 1907), 151; Report of the Illinois Health Insurance Commission, 478, 529; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (1917), 109; Loyal Order of Moose, Supreme Lodge, Minutes (1921), 205; George S. Mathews, "Contract Practice in Rhode Island," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 601; Morris Joseph Clurman, "The Lodge Practice Evil of the Lower East Side," Medical Record 78 (October 22, 1910), 718; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 4 (June 1910), 425; and J. W. Bolton, "Lodge Practice," Journal of the Missouri State Medical Association 12 (April 1915), 158-9. For similar studies on the extent of lodge practice in Seattle and Spokane, Washington, see "The Iniquitous Contract and Lodge Practice," Northwest Medicine 4 (April 1906), 133-4; and H. H. McCarthy, "Some of the Evils of Medical Practice," Northwest Medicine 2 (March 1910), 89.
46. David Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise: Hospitals and Health Care in Brooklyn and New York, 1885-1915 (Cambridge, 1982), 125-6, 146-8.
47. American Medical Association, Data on Social Insurance (Chicago, 1919), 45-7.
48. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; and The Forester 12 (December 1902), 359. Other prominent native white societies with lodge practice were the Loyal Order of Moose, the Order of Owls, and Manchester Unity. Alleman, 225; Zierath, 151; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 54 (March 19, 1910), 988;
49. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; and The Forester 12 (December 1902), 359. Other prominent native white societies with lodge practice were the Loyal Order of Moose, the Order of Owls, and Manchester Unity. Alleman, 225; Zierath, 151; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 54 (March 19, 1910), 988;
50. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; and The Forester 12 (December 1902), 359. Other prominent native white societies with lodge practice were the Loyal Order of Moose, the Order of Owls, and Manchester Unity. Alleman, 225; Zierath, 151; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 54 (March 19, 1910), 988;
51. Mathews, 601; and Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California, 109.
52. Stevens, 113, 138-40, 222-3. Numerous phone calls and letters, as well as a visit to the national headquarters of IOF and Moose International (formerly the Loyal Order of Moose), have not yielded any primary material from individual lodges of either FOE or the various organizations of the Foresters. Unfortunately, it was the standing policy of the courts of the Foresters to destroy all of their records after a specific period had elapsed.
53. Alvin J. Schmidt, Fraternal Organizations (Westport, 1980), 94; Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1908), 110; Arthur Preuss, A Dictionary of Secret and Other Societies (St. Louis, 1924), 133; and The Eagle Magazine 17 (May 1929), 1-43, 45.
54. Alvin J. Schmidt, Fraternal Organizations (Westport, 1980), 94; Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1908), 110; Arthur Preuss, A Dictionary of Secret and Other Societies (St. Louis, 1924), 133; and The Eagle Magazine 17 (May 1929), 1-43, 45.
55. Alvin J. Schmidt, Fraternal Organizations (Westport, 1980), 94; Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1908), 110; Arthur Preuss, A Dictionary of Secret and Other Societies (St. Louis, 1924), 133; and The Eagle Magazine 17 (May 1929), 1-43, 45.
56. Alvin J. Schmidt, Fraternal Organizations (Westport, 1980), 94; Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1908), 110; Arthur Preuss, A Dictionary of Secret and Other Societies (St. Louis, 1924), 133; and The Eagle Magazine 17 (May 1929), 1-43, 45.
57. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association, 988; Holtzapple, 532-3; Zierath, 151; Mathews, 601; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1927), 217.
58. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association, 988; Holtzapple, 532-3; Zierath, 151; Mathews, 601; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1927), 217.
59. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 379; "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association, 988; Holtzapple, 532-3; Zierath, 151; Mathews, 601; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1927), 217.
60. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
61. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
62. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
63. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
64. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
65. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
66. In this section, I am indebted to the following excellent work by anthropologist Claude F. Jacobs: "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care Among New Orleans Blacks: From Voluntary Association to Public Policy," (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1980); and "Benevolent Societies of New Orleans Blacks During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Louisiana History, 29 (Winter 1988), 21-33. On black fraternal societies in general, see David M. Fahey, The Black Lodge in White America: "True Reformer" Browne and His Economic Strategy (Dayton, 1994); William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia (Urbana, 1990), 198-213; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia, 1984); and Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14 (Spring 1989), 610-33.
67. Harry J. Walker, "Negro Benevolent Societies in New Orleans: A Study of Their Structure, Function, and Membership," (M.A. Thesis, Fisk University, 1937), 332-5, 21, 47. Walker illustrated the modest backgrounds of most members through a statistical sample of 376 male and 443 females who belonged to thirty-four societies. He found that more than half the females worked outside the home; 63 percent in unskilled occupations (primarily domestic service) and a surprisingly high 10.3 percent as professionals. Among the males, 54 percent were unskilled, 26.2 skilled and semi-skilled, and only 2 percent were professionals or proprietors. Walker, 59-62, 119.
68. Jacobs, "Strategies of Neighborhood Health-Care," 101-2. On the general procedures followed by lodges in New Orleans, see Walker, 69, 186.
69. Ladies Friends of Faith Benevolent Association, Minutes, August 2, 1914, through October 1, 1916, Amistad Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana. One exception was that of a member who was "discharged" from support because the "chairlady [of the sick committee] stated that she found the sister on the side of the bed sewing." This, of course, violated the requirement that recipients be unable to work. Ladies Friends of Faith, Minutes, June 18, 1916.
70. Ladies Friends of Faith, Minutes, August 20, 1916.
71. For more information on fraternal hospitals, see David T. Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services (forthcoming).
72. Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Indians and Their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987), 198-9; and Durward Long, "An Immigrant Co-operative Medicine Program in the South, 1887-1963," Journal of Southern History 31 (November 1965), 428-9.
73. Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Indians and Their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987), 198-9; and Durward Long, "An Immigrant Co-operative Medicine Program in the South, 1887-1963," Journal of Southern History 31 (November 1965), 428-9.
74. "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107.
75. Zierath, 150; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and Burrow, 126.
76. John McMahon, "The Ethical Versus the Commercial Side of Medical Practice - Which Will We Serve?" California State Journal of Medicine 8 (July 1910), 243; and John B. Donaldson, "Contract Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 12 (December 1908), 212-4.
77. John McMahon, "The Ethical Versus the Commercial Side of Medical Practice - Which Will We Serve?" California State Journal of Medicine 8 (July 1910), 243; and John B. Donaldson, "Contract Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 12 (December 1908), 212-4.
78. "A New Shame," California State Journal of Medicine 7 (June 1909) 194; "Discussion, Dr. F.F. Lawrence, of Columbus," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 637; and Holtzapple, 536.
79. "A New Shame," California State Journal of Medicine 7 (June 1909) 194; "Discussion, Dr. F.F. Lawrence, of Columbus," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 637; and Holtzapple, 536.
80. A. B. Hirsh, "Is Lodge Practice a Preventable Evil?" Pennsylvania Medical Journal 12 (December 1908), 215; and "Discussion, Dr. Albert M. Eaton, Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 11 (April 1908), 538. Also, see Zierath, 160, and Alleman, 223-4. In Dr. Donaldson's opinion, lodge practice had a special attraction for that class of men who are "ne'er-do-wells that are always drifting," 213.
81. A. B. Hirsh, "Is Lodge Practice a Preventable Evil?" Pennsylvania Medical Journal 12 (December 1908), 215; and "Discussion, Dr. Albert M. Eaton, Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 11 (April 1908), 538. Also, see Zierath, 160, and Alleman, 223-4. In Dr. Donaldson's opinion, lodge practice had a special attraction for that class of men who are "ne'er-do-wells that are always drifting," 213.
82. A. B. Hirsh, "Is Lodge Practice a Preventable Evil?" Pennsylvania Medical Journal 12 (December 1908), 215; and "Discussion, Dr. Albert M. Eaton, Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 11 (April 1908), 538. Also, see Zierath, 160, and Alleman, 223-4. In Dr. Donaldson's opinion, lodge practice had a special attraction for that class of men who are "ne'er-do-wells that are always drifting," 213.
83. "Discussion, Dr. F. T. Rogers, Providence," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 629; "Lodge Practice and Its After Effects," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 9 (February 1913), 474; "Discussion, Dr. H. A. Tomlinson, St. Peter, Minn.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 638; and Clurman, 718. "The idea of coercion by a lodge to any physician," Dr. Bolton argued, "is certainly one of the most repugnant that the lodge doctor must submit to. It is only natural for any physician having this feeling to neglect his duty to his patients." Bolton, 159.
84. "Discussion, Dr. F. T. Rogers, Providence," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 629; "Lodge Practice and Its After Effects," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 9 (February 1913), 474; "Discussion, Dr. H. A. Tomlinson, St. Peter, Minn.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 638; and Clurman, 718. "The idea of coercion by a lodge to any physician," Dr. Bolton argued, "is certainly one of the most repugnant that the lodge doctor must submit to. It is only natural for any physician having this feeling to neglect his duty to his patients." Bolton, 159.
85. "Discussion, Dr. F. T. Rogers, Providence," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 629; "Lodge Practice and Its After Effects," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 9 (February 1913), 474; "Discussion, Dr. H. A. Tomlinson, St. Peter, Minn.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 638; and Clurman, 718. "The idea of coercion by a lodge to any physician," Dr. Bolton argued, "is certainly one of the most repugnant that the lodge doctor must submit to. It is only natural for any physician having this feeling to neglect his duty to his patients." Bolton, 159.
86. "Discussion, Dr. F. T. Rogers, Providence," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 629; "Lodge Practice and Its After Effects," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 9 (February 1913), 474; "Discussion, Dr. H. A. Tomlinson, St. Peter, Minn.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 638; and Clurman, 718. "The idea of coercion by a lodge to any physician," Dr. Bolton argued, "is certainly one of the most repugnant that the lodge doctor must submit to. It is only natural for any physician having this feeling to neglect his duty to his patients." Bolton, 159.
87. Clurman, 718; Eaton, 538; Bolton, 158; and Zierath, 151.
88. "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; Bolton, 158; and Straub Sherrer, "The Contract Physician; His Use and Abuse," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 106.
89. "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; Bolton, 158; and Straub Sherrer, "The Contract Physician; His Use and Abuse," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 106.
90. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
91. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
92. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
93. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
94. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
95. "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 13 (November 1909), 148; Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 99; and "Creating New Business," The Medical Council 19 (May 1914), 191-3. For other examples of official fee schedules, see McCarthy, 89; and "Fee Schedule," California State Journal of Medicine 12 (June 1914), 235. "We cannot escape from the fact," noted an editorial in the New York State Journal of Medicine, "that these poor people [who belong to lodges] are not able to pay the most modest [regular] fee where continuous treatment is necessary." "The Vexed Question - Lodge Practice," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (November 1913), 562.
96. Burrow, 127; Walker, 256; and Mathews, 604.
97. Walker 263; and Hurwitz, 179-80.
98. John C. McManemin, "A Defence of Contract Practice," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 615; and Zierath, 151.
99. Mathews, 604; and Loyal Order of Moose, Minutes (1921), 205
100. Hirsh, 215; Goldwater, 614; and Holtzapple, 537. In Dr. Mathews's opinion, some "of the best members of our State Society have engaged in this work honorably and conscientiously," while Dr. Rexwald Brown of California concluded that "many physicians have made a fair competence through their lodge work and have rendered excellent service to patients." Mathews, 606; and Brown, "Evils of the Lodge Practice System," California State Journal of Medicine 6 (April 1908), 125.
101. Hirsh, 215; Goldwater, 614; and Holtzapple, 537. In Dr. Mathews's opinion, some "of the best members of our State Society have engaged in this work honorably and conscientiously," while Dr. Rexwald Brown of California concluded that "many physicians have made a fair competence through their lodge work and have rendered excellent service to patients." Mathews, 606; and Brown, "Evils of the Lodge Practice System," California State Journal of Medicine 6 (April 1908), 125.
102. E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1979), 64, 82; Gerald E. Markowitz and David Karl Rosner, "Doctors in Crisis: A Study of the Use of Medical Education Reform to Establish Modern Professional Elitism in Medicine," American Quarterly 25 (March 1973), 95-6; and Starr, 117-8.
103. E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley, 1979), 64, 82; Gerald E. Markowitz and David Karl Rosner, "Doctors in Crisis: A Study of the Use of Medical Education Reform to Establish Modern Professional Elitism in Medicine," American Quarterly 25 (March 1973), 95-6; and Starr, 117-8.
104. Markowitz and Rosner, 95. "The continuing contention of organized medicine that the 'overcrowding' of the profession was the product of inept educational standards and a consequent proliferation of diploma mills must be called into question in light of the fact that more than 5,000 graduates a year were able to be absorbed into the profession between 1900 and 1907 despite the existence of licensing laws which ostensibly acted as a control on the quality of new practitioners." Ronald Haraowy, "The Early Development of Medical Licensing Laws in the United States, 1875-1900," Journal of Libertarian Studies 3 (1979), 103.
105. A. Ravogli, "Physicians in Contract Practice with Mutual Benevolent Societies," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 611.
106. The Forester 23 (August 1902), 239; The Independent Forester 21 (October 1900), 103; The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Minutes (1902), 3-4; and Minutes (1908), 3, 51-9. "Aunt Mattie," a field solicitor for IOF, cautioned against seeking new recruits from patients "in a hospital, sick room or amongst those who are under a physician's care. Our Doctor' would not recommend such." The Forester 22 (December 1901), 586.
107. The Forester 23 (August 1902), 239; The Independent Forester 21 (October 1900), 103; The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Minutes (1902), 3-4; and Minutes (1908), 3, 51-9. "Aunt Mattie," a field solicitor for IOF, cautioned against seeking new recruits from patients "in a hospital, sick room or amongst those who are under a physician's care. Our Doctor' would not recommend such." The Forester 22 (December 1901), 586.
108. The Forester 23 (August 1902), 239; The Independent Forester 21 (October 1900), 103; The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Minutes (1902), 3-4; and Minutes (1908), 3, 51-9. "Aunt Mattie," a field solicitor for IOF, cautioned against seeking new recruits from patients "in a hospital, sick room or amongst those who are under a physician's care. Our Doctor' would not recommend such." The Forester 22 (December 1901), 586.
109. The Forester 23 (August 1902), 239; The Independent Forester 21 (October 1900), 103; The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Minutes (1902), 3-4; and Minutes (1908), 3, 51-9. "Aunt Mattie," a field solicitor for IOF, cautioned against seeking new recruits from patients "in a hospital, sick room or amongst those who are under a physician's care. Our Doctor' would not recommend such." The Forester 22 (December 1901), 586.
110. The Forester 23 (August 1902), 239; The Independent Forester 21 (October 1900), 103; The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Minutes (1902), 3-4; and Minutes (1908), 3, 51-9. "Aunt Mattie," a field solicitor for IOF, cautioned against seeking new recruits from patients "in a hospital, sick room or amongst those who are under a physician's care. Our Doctor' would not recommend such." The Forester 22 (December 1901), 586.
111. The Forester 38 (June 1918), 46. For more on fraternal precautions against malingering, see David T. Beito "Mutual Aid, State Welfare, and Organized Charity: Fraternal Societies and the 'Deserving' and 'Undeserving' Poor, 1900-1930," Journal of Policy History 5 (1993), 419-34.
112. The Forester 38 (June 1918), 46. For more on fraternal precautions against malingering, see David T. Beito "Mutual Aid, State Welfare, and Organized Charity: Fraternal Societies and the 'Deserving' and 'Undeserving' Poor, 1900-1930," Journal of Policy History 5 (1993), 419-34.
113. "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 988; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; The Eagle Magazine, 2 (September 1914) 12; and The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Constitution and Laws (1912), 152.
114. "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 988; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; The Eagle Magazine, 2 (September 1914) 12; and The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Constitution and Laws (1912), 152.
115. "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 988; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; The Eagle Magazine, 2 (September 1914) 12; and The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Constitution and Laws (1912), 152.
116. "Medical Economics," Journal of the American Medical Association 988; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal 425; The Eagle Magazine, 2 (September 1914) 12; and The Independent Order of Foresters, Supreme Court, Constitution and Laws (1912), 152.
117. Bolton, 159. According to Dr. Zierath, the lodge doctor's "every act is critically observed and often prejudged" by the patient and "slight mistakes and lack of care . . . which would ordinarily pass unnoticed, are magnified into and regarded as acts of the greatest negligence." Zierath, 153-4.
118. Lawrence, 637; Clurman, 718; and "Discussion, Dr. Henry B. Hemenway," 635.
119. Clurman, 717-8; and Mathews, 604. Encapsulating widespread fears about professional proletarianization, one physician charged that the "so-much per visit savors very much of the per diem price paid unskilled labor." "From the Field," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 652.
120. Brown, "Evils of the Lodge Practice System," 120; and Zierath, 154-5.
121. The Eagle Magazine 5 (December 1916), 28, 4; and The Forester 12 (December 1902), 359. While McManemin admitted that the lodge doctor "is often sent for only to arrive and find some slight disarrangement which amounted to almost nothing," he also asked "even in those cases does not the old saying, 'An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,' apply?" McManemin, 616.
122. The Eagle Magazine 5 (December 1916), 28, 4; and The Forester 12 (December 1902), 359. While McManemin admitted that the lodge doctor "is often sent for only to arrive and find some slight disarrangement which amounted to almost nothing," he also asked "even in those cases does not the old saying, 'An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,' apply?" McManemin, 616.
123. "Contract Practice" from the Maine Medical Society Journal as reprinted in the Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 13 (June 1916), 336; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 380; and Walker, 70.
124. "Contract Practice" from the Maine Medical Society Journal as reprinted in the Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 13 (June 1916), 336; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 380; and Walker, 70.
125. "Contract Practice" from the Maine Medical Society Journal as reprinted in the Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 13 (June 1916), 336; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 380; and Walker, 70.
126. Walker, 79, 75.
127. Walker, 227, 239, 221; and "Lodge Practice in its Relation to Qualifications for Membership," New York State Journal of Medicine 13 (June 1913), 299.
128. Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 106; and Ravogli, 609.
129. "The Vexed Question," 562-3. The author of the editorial also asked: "When sickness enters the home of the poor, who is there to give them succor, who is to respond to their midnight calls but these lodge doctors?" 562.
130. Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 104. The statement entailed a slight shift from the "Principles" of the AMA adopted in 1903: "Poverty, mutual professional obligations, and certain . . . public duties . . . should always be recognized as presenting valid claims for gratuitous services; but neither institutions endowed by the public or the rich, or by societies for mutual benefit, for life insurance, or for analogous purposes, nor any profession or occupation, can be admitted to possess such privilege." Cited in Jeffrey Lionel Berlant, Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain (Berkeley, 1975), 106.
131. Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 104. The statement entailed a slight shift from the "Principles" of the AMA adopted in 1903: "Poverty, mutual professional obligations, and certain . . . public duties . . . should always be recognized as presenting valid claims for gratuitous services; but neither institutions endowed by the public or the rich, or by societies for mutual benefit, for life insurance, or for analogous purposes, nor any profession or occupation, can be admitted to possess such privilege." Cited in Jeffrey Lionel Berlant, Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain (Berkeley, 1975), 106.
132. Starr, 208-9; Burrow, 128-31; and Schwartz, 460-3. Three years later, the Committee on Social Insurance, chaired by Dr. Lambert, faulted lodge practice for encouraging "commercial haggling" and breeding disrespect by patients. It recommended governmental health insurance as the only means to "release the unfortunate physician, who, facing starvation, must accept this lodge practice." American Medical Association Bulletin 11 (March 15, 1916), 320, 346.
133. Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise, 107, 147-51; and Odin W. Anderson, The Uneasy Equilibrium: Private and Public Financing of Health Services in the United States, 1875-1965 (New Haven, 1968), 33-6.
134. Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise, 107, 147-51; and Odin W. Anderson, The Uneasy Equilibrium: Private and Public Financing of Health Services in the United States, 1875-1965 (New Haven, 1968), 33-6.
135. David Rosner, "Health Care for the 'Truly Needy:' Nineteenth-Century Origins of the Concept," Milbank Memorial Quarterly 60 (Summer 1982), 377-80; Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise, 127; Goldwater, 614; and Michael M. Davis Jr. and Andrew R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, 1918), 353.
136. David Rosner, "Health Care for the 'Truly Needy:' Nineteenth-Century Origins of the Concept," Milbank Memorial Quarterly 60 (Summer 1982), 377-80; Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise, 127; Goldwater, 614; and Michael M. Davis Jr. and Andrew R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, 1918), 353.
137. David Rosner, "Health Care for the 'Truly Needy:' Nineteenth-Century Origins of the Concept," Milbank Memorial Quarterly 60 (Summer 1982), 377-80; Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise, 127; Goldwater, 614; and Michael M. Davis Jr. and Andrew R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, 1918), 353.
138. The Eagle Magazine 5 (December 1916), 4; and Hurwitz. 178.
139. Burrow, 131; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 336; Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (November 1910), 152; "Editorial," Journal of the Michigan State Medical Society 8 (December 1909), 596; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and "Contract Practice," Illinois Medical Journal 12 (November 1907), 504.
140. Burrow, 131; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 336; Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (November 1910), 152; "Editorial," Journal of the Michigan State Medical Society 8 (December 1909), 596; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and "Contract Practice," Illinois Medical Journal 12 (November 1907), 504.
141. Burrow, 131; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 336; Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (November 1910), 152; "Editorial," Journal of the Michigan State Medical Society 8 (December 1909), 596; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and "Contract Practice," Illinois Medical Journal 12 (November 1907), 504.
142. Burrow, 131; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 336; Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (November 1910), 152; "Editorial," Journal of the Michigan State Medical Society 8 (December 1909), 596; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and "Contract Practice," Illinois Medical Journal 12 (November 1907), 504.
143. Burrow, 131; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 336; Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (November 1910), 152; "Editorial," Journal of the Michigan State Medical Society 8 (December 1909), 596; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; and "Contract Practice," Illinois Medical Journal 12 (November 1907), 504.
144. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
145. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
146. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
147. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
148. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
149. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
150. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew
151. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
152. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
153. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
154. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
155. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
156. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
157. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
158. "The Vexed Question," 561-3; and Lytle, 106. On the pressures exerted by various local societies against lodge doctors, see Burrow, 125-31; "Medical Ethics and County By-Laws," Texas State Journal of Medicine 8 (February 1913), 257-8; "Contract Practice," Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 336; "Contract Practice," West Virginia Medical Journal, 426; "Discussion, Dr. J. K. Weaver, Norristown," Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 10 (December 1909), 631-2; Lytle, 107; Howard Pursell, (Letter) "Lodge Practice," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 14 (December 1910), 237; "An Example that Should be Followed," Pennsylvania Medical Journal 8 (November 1904), 107; "Discussion, Dr. Fremont W. Frankhauser, Reading," Ibid. 11 (April 1908), 540-2; "No Contract Practice for Meadville," Ibid. 148; "Contract Practice," Ibid. 13 (March 1910), 441; "Lodge Practice Forbidden," Ibid. 14 (March 1911), 445; C. L. Stevens, "Contract Practice," (Response to Letter), Ibid. 14 (June 1911), 738-9; "Report of the Committee on Lodge Practice," Ibid. 15 (October 1911), 57; "Butler," Ibid. 15 (May 1912), 672; and Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1912), 204-5. Reports in the medical journals suggest that on balance, these restrictions were effective. A typical example occurred in Bristol, Pennsylvania, where local physicians boycotted the lone lodge doctor in the area. Word of the campaign spread, with the final result, as one of the organizers observed with satisfaction, that "patrons gradually withdrew from him, his calls for attendance were few, and this last summer he quietly left the town and vicinity." Pursell, 237.
159. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 185; and Call of the Moose 4 (September 1912), 4.
160. Fraternal Order of Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1910), 185; and Call of the Moose 4 (September 1912), 4.
161. Fraternal Orderof Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1905), 106; Ibid. (1911), 152; and Call of the Moose 4 (September 1912), 4.
162. Fraternal Orderof Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1905), 106; Ibid. (1911), 152; and Call of the Moose 4 (September 1912), 4.
163. Fraternal Orderof Eagles, Grand Aerie, Journal of Proceedings (1905), 106; Ibid. (1911), 152; and Call of the Moose 4 (September 1912), 4.
164. On the decline of fraternal hospitals, see Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State (forthcoming). Mormino and Pozzetta, 197-205; Long, 424-34; and Thomas J. E. Walker, Pluralistic Fraternity: The History of the International Worker's Order (New York, 1991), 18-20.
165. On the decline of fraternal hospitals, see Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State (forthcoming). Mormino and Pozzetta, 197-205; Long, 424-34; and Thomas J. E. Walker, Pluralistic Fraternity: The History of the International Worker's Order (New York, 1991), 18-20.
166. Stetson Kennedy, Palmetto County (New York, 1942), 298-9. During the depression, massive unemployment severely weakened the membership base of the black lodges in New Orleans and the numbers of societies fell by nearly half. The decline did not abate in subsequent decades. Harry J. Walker, "Negro Benevolent Societies," 114.
167. Stetson Kennedy, Palmetto County (New York, 1942), 298-9. During the depression, massive unemployment severely weakened the membership base of the black lodges in New Orleans and the numbers of societies fell by nearly half. The decline did not abate in subsequent decades. Harry J. Walker, "Negro Benevolent Societies," 114.
168. Starr, 120-1, 126; and Markowitz and Rosner, 95-107.