The politics of history: The legacy of the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria

Journal of Asian and African Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 1-2, 1997, Pages 50-65

  Reynolds, Jonathan T ^a  

^a Livingstone College   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

POLITICS;

NIGERIA;

EID: 0031400093     PISSN: 00219096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/002190969703200105     Document Type: Review

References (65)

1. See, for example, John Hunwick, "An African Case Study of Political Islam: Nigeria," Annals, AAPSS, 524 (November 1992): 143-155; Pat Williams and Toyin Falola, Religious Impact on the Nation State: The Nigerian Predicament (Avebury: Ashgate, 1995); Iheanyi M. Enwerem, A Dangerous Awakening (Ibadan: IFRA, 1995).
2. See, for example, John Hunwick, "An African Case Study of Political Islam: Nigeria," Annals, AAPSS, 524 (November 1992): 143-155; Pat Williams and Toyin Falola, Religious Impact on the Nation State: The Nigerian Predicament (Avebury: Ashgate, 1995); Iheanyi M. Enwerem, A Dangerous Awakening (Ibadan: IFRA, 1995).
3. See, for example, John Hunwick, "An African Case Study of Political Islam: Nigeria," Annals, AAPSS, 524 (November 1992): 143-155; Pat Williams and Toyin Falola, Religious Impact on the Nation State: The Nigerian Predicament (Avebury: Ashgate, 1995); Iheanyi M. Enwerem, A Dangerous Awakening (Ibadan: IFRA, 1995).
4. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
5. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
6. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
7. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
8. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
9. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
10. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
11. Until recently most scholars of twentieth-century Nigeria have made efforts to keep the studies of religion and politics separate. Such works include: Peter B. Clarke and Ian Linden, Islam in Nigeria (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1984); Billy J. Dudley, Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1968); Robert Heussler, The British in Northern Nigeria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); K.W.J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959: Politics and Administration in a Developing Political System (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); Richard L. Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). John Paden and C.S. Whitaker both recognized the role of religion in Nigerian politics, but failed to examine in any detail how religion was utilized to achieve political ends. John N. Paden, Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973); John N. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria (Zaria: Hudahuda, 1986); C.S. Whitaker, The Politics of Tradition: a Study of Community and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
12. A.D. Yahaya, The Native Authority System in Northern Nigeria (Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1980), 5.
13. I use the term "conservative" to describe the NPC because a primary goal of this party was to preserve the political and social status quo of the region. Likewise, I refer to NEPU as "radical" because the party sought to bring about extensive changes in the North's political and social organization. It should be noted that the parties referred to themselves in such terms.
14. A.D. Yahaya, "The Native Authority System in Northern Nigeria: A Study in Political Relations with Particular Reference to the Zaria Native Authority" (Ph.D. diss., Ahmadu Bello University, 1974), 276.
15. Post, Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959, 42.
16. For a detailed discussion of this issue, see Jonathan T. Reynolds, "Zamanin Siyasa (The Time of Politics): Islam and Political Legitimacy in Northern Nigeria, 1950-1966" (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1995), Ch. 3.
17. Ibid., Ch. 5.
18. Ahmadu Jalingo, interview by author, 15 August 1991.
19. Omo Omoruyi, "Malam Aminu Kano and the Legacy of Grassroots Politics in Nigeria," Centre for Democratic Studies, Aminu Kano Memorial Lecture, Kano, 17 April 1992.
20. Ahmadu Bello, My Life (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1986), 10.
21. Nigerian Citizen, 11 November 1956.
22. Daily Times, 2 December 1959.
23. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, 172.
24. See, for example, Work and Worship: Selected Speeches of Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, ed. Steven Amune (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1986), 215; see also Bello, My Life, 10-11.
25. See, for example, Work and Worship: Selected Speeches of Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, ed. Steven Amune (Zaria: Gaskiya, 1986), 215; see also Bello, My Life, 10-11.
26. Post, Nigerian Federal Elections of 1959, 53.
27. Ahmadu Bello, "Address to the Minority Commission," 5 February, 1958, in: Amune, Work and Worship, 135.
28. Interview with Alhaji Tanko Yakasai, 21 January 1993. The religious illegitimacy of the Habe kings is outlined in Usman dan Fodio's attack on the Habe, and the NEPU's attack on the NPC and Native Authority are clearly intentional. For information on dan Fodio's works, see Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (New York: Humanities Press, 1967), xxv-lxxx.
29. Akilu Aliyu, interview by author, 24 April 1993.
30. Alhaji Tanko Yakasai, interview by author, 21 January 1993.
31. Bello, My Life, 1.
32. Nigerian Citizen, 16 January 1965.
33. Dudley, Parties and Politics, 184.
34. Premier's Touring Notes, 1958-1965, PRE/2 ACC/178-191, Agency Mark PRE/99, Nigerian National Archives, Kaduna.
35. Nigerian Citizen, 16 June 1965.
36. Nigerian Citizen, 6 March 1965.
37. Nigerian Citizen, 18 March 1959; see also Daily Mail, 17 June 1961.
38. Nigerian Citizen, 18 March 1959; see also Daily Mail, 17 June 1961.
39. Alhaji Tanko Yakasai, interview by author, 14 May 1994.
40. Bello, My Life, 97-98.
41. Ministerial Speech to the Northern House of Chiefs, 14 April 1962, in: Work and Worship, ed. Amune, 168-169.
42. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, 215.
43. Drum (July 1965), quoted in Abba, Legacy, 76.
44. Drum (July 1965), quoted in Abba, Legacy, 76.
45. Paden, Ahmadu Bello, 215.
46. Ahamadu Jalingo, "Islam and Political Legitimacy in Northern Nigeria," Kano Studies, 2, No. 3 (1982/1985): 75.
47. Daily Comet, 14 June 1960.
48. Jalingo, "Islam and Political Legitimacy," 75.
49. M.T.A. Liman, interview by author, 15 August 1991.
50. Jalingo, "Islam and Political Legitimacy," 75.
51. Alhaji Baba dan Agundi, interview by author, 4 April 1993.
52. Jalingo, "Islam and Political Legitimacy," 73.
53. Paden, Religion and Political Culture, 298.
54. Lawan Danbazau, "Islam Confronts the Evil Machinations of the N.P.C.," Daily Comet, 29 January 1960.
55. See, for example, Bolaji A. Akinyemi, "Religion and Foreign Affairs: Press Attitudes towards the Nigerian Civil War," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, 2, No. 2 (1978): 146-175; see also John de St. Jorre, The Brothers' War: Biafra and Nigeria (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972), 352.
56. See, for example, Bolaji A. Akinyemi, "Religion and Foreign Affairs: Press Attitudes towards the Nigerian Civil War," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, 2, No. 2 (1978): 146-175; see also John de St. Jorre, The Brothers' War: Biafra and Nigeria (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972), 352.
57. Indeed, the NPC managed to control the Northern government during the First Republic without ever contesting a seat outside of the Northern Region.
58. Williams and Falola, Nigerian Predicament, 101-106.
59. Mohammed Sani Umar, "Changing Islamic Identity in Nigeria from the 1960s to the 1980s: From Sufism to Anti-Sufism", in: Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. Louis Brenner (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 162-175; see also A.M. Gumi and I.A. Tsiga, Where I Stand (Kaduna: Spectrum Books, 1992).
60. Mohammed Sani Umar, "Changing Islamic Identity in Nigeria from the 1960s to the 1980s: From Sufism to Anti-Sufism", in: Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. Louis Brenner (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 162-175; see also A.M. Gumi and I.A. Tsiga, Where I Stand (Kaduna: Spectrum Books, 1992).
61. The riots in Kano on the occasion of the visit by Reinhard Bonnke in 1991 are a case in point. See Tell, 28 October 1991, 12-16.
62. See Yusufu Bala Usman, The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria, 1977-1987 (Kaduna: Vanguard, 1987), 11-25.
63. Williams and Falola, Nigerian Predicament, 23-25.
64. John Hunwick, Religion and National Integration in Africa: Islam, Christianity, and Politics in the Sudan and Nigeria (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1992), 7, n. 16.
65. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York: Verso, 1991), 139.