Agricultural intensification and poverty reduction in Latin America's risk-prone areas: Opportunities and challenges

Journal of Developing Areas

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 479-514

  Pichón, Francisco J ^a   Uquillas, Jorge E ^a  

^a WORLD BANK   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE; ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION; FOOD INSECURITY; GREEN REVOLUTION; POVERTY ALLEVIATION;

LATIN AMERICA;

EID: 0031395413     PISSN: 0022037X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Kevin M. Cleaver and Gotz A. Schreiber, The Population, Agriculture, Environmental Nexus in Sub-Saharan Africa, Agriculture and Rural Development Series No. 1 (Washington, DC: Africa Technical Department, Agriculture Division, World Bank, 1992).
2. Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Rajul Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture, and Effectively Managing Natural Resources," Discussion Paper No. 1 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1995).
3. Robert Chambers and Jules Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres Tackling the Crucial Issues of Poverty and Sustainability?" International Agricultural Development (November/December 1994).
4. A "poor" individual is one whose income is inadequate to meet minimum daily nutritional requirements as well as other basic needs, such as hygiene, clothing, education, and transportation. The poverty line is US $370 annual income per capita in 1985 purchasing power parity dollars. See CEPAL (Comision Economica para America Latina), Panorama Social de America Latina (Santiago: CEPAL, 1994).
5. World Bank, Towards a Bank Strategy for Agriculture in the Latin America and Caribbean Region (Washington, DC: Latin America and the Caribbean Technical Department, World Bank, 1993).
6. Thomas Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management, and Overall Rural Development in the LAC Region: The World Bank 's Strategy (Washington, DC: Latin America and the Caribbean Technical Department, World Bank, 1994).
7. Edward C. Wolf, Beyond the Green Revolution: New Approaches for Third World Agriculture (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1986).
8. Robert Chambers. Arnold Pacey, and Lori Thrupp, eds., Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1989).
9. H. Jeffrey Leonard, ed., Environment and the Poor: Development Strategies for a Common Agenda (New Brunswick and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1989).
10. Wolf, Beyond the Green Revolution.
11. L. R. Oldeman, V. Van Engelen, and J. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-Induced Soil Degradation," in World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, ed. L. R. Oldeman, R. T. A. Hakkeling, and Wim G. Sombroek (Wageningen, Netherlands: International Soil Reference and Information Center, 1990).
12. This estimate is from a three-year worldwide study sponsored by the United Nations Environment Program that asked more than 250 soil scientists and regional coordinators from around the world for their estimates of human-induced soil degradation since World War II. See Oldeman, Van Engelen, and Pulles, "Extent of Human-Induced Soil Degradation."
13. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Latin America and the Caribbean, Regional Document No. 3 (Rome: FAO, 1991); and James Garrett, "A 20-20 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment in Latin America," Discussion Paper No. 6 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1995).
14. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Latin America and the Caribbean, Regional Document No. 3 (Rome: FAO, 1991); and James Garrett, "A 20-20 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment in Latin America," Discussion Paper No. 6 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1995).
15. FAO, FAO Agrotast-PC, Population, Production, and Food Balance Sheets Domains (Rome: FAO, 1992).
16. Garrett, "20-20 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment in Latin America."
17. CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), A Possible Expansion of CGIAR (Washington, DC: Technical Advisory Committee, CGIAR, 1990).
18. Anne O. Krueger, Maurice W. Schiff, and Alberto Valdes, The Political Economy of Agricultural Price Intervention in Latin America (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993).
19. The presence of such rural dualism is recognized in two recent World Bank's documents delineating regional strategies for the agricultural sector and rural poverty alleviation in Latin America, although its extent and different forms are not documented. See World Bank, Towards a Bank Strategy for Agriculture; and Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management. Nevertheless, the former document recognizes that this phenomenon is "at the root of many economic and political problems, threatening social harmony and posing hard choices for agricultural strategy" (p. 3).
20. The presence of such rural dualism is recognized in two recent World Bank's documents delineating regional strategies for the agricultural sector and rural poverty alleviation in Latin America, although its extent and different forms are not documented. See World Bank, Towards a Bank Strategy for Agriculture; and Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management. Nevertheless, the former document recognizes that this phenomenon is "at the root of many economic and political problems, threatening social harmony and posing hard choices for agricultural strategy" (p. 3).
21. Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management, reports that there is also a close correlation between ethnicity and rural poverty in risk-prone areas. Indigenous people are usually landless farm laborers in commercial farming areas or smallholders in areas of marginal quality and low extent of commercialization. A recent World Bank study estimates the indigenous population of Latin America to be between 19 and 34 million people, with the great majority living in Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. The same study calculates that 80 percent of the indigenous population is poor (if lower estimates of the total population are used), and over half is extremely poor. See George Psacharopoulos and Harry Patrinos, eds., Indigenous People and Poverty in Latin America: An Empirical Analysis (Washington, DC: Regional and Sectoral Studies, World Bank, 1994).
22. Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management, reports that there is also a close correlation between ethnicity and rural poverty in risk-prone areas. Indigenous people are usually landless farm laborers in commercial farming areas or smallholders in areas of marginal quality and low extent of commercialization. A recent World Bank study estimates the indigenous population of Latin America to be between 19 and 34 million people, with the great majority living in Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. The same study calculates that 80 percent of the indigenous population is poor (if lower estimates of the total population are used), and over half is extremely poor. See George Psacharopoulos and Harry Patrinos, eds., Indigenous People and Poverty in Latin America: An Empirical Analysis (Washington, DC: Regional and Sectoral Studies, World Bank, 1994).
23. Richard Bilsborrow, "Population Growth, Internal Migration, and Environmental Degradation in Rural Areas of Developing Countries," European Journal of Population 8 (December 1992): 125-48.
24. Referring to the effects of population growth on agriculture and technological innovation, Boserup challenged the (Ricardian-Malthusian) assumption of constant technology, postulating that as rural land becomes scarce relative to population (because of population growth), land will be used more intensively in order to produce greater yields. Boserup sees agricultural intensification as an ecological imperative based on a new human-land ratio: as long as the number of people continues to rise on a given amount of land, or the amount of land available continues to fall for a constant number of people, the need for increasing labor investment is expected to continue as well. She then proposed that "the growth of population is a major determinant of technological change in agriculture," which stems from the necessity to raise output per unit of area to offset the increase in labor requirements associated with more intensive land use. According to Boserup, population becomes the independent variable, and the dependent variables become agrotechnology, the intensiveness with which labor inputs are applied, and hence the capacity of the system to support people. See Esther Boserup, Population and Technology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981); and idem, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth (Chicago: Aldine, 1965).
25. Referring to the effects of population growth on agriculture and technological innovation, Boserup challenged the (Ricardian-Malthusian) assumption of constant technology, postulating that as rural land becomes scarce relative to population (because of population growth), land will be used more intensively in order to produce greater yields. Boserup sees agricultural intensification as an ecological imperative based on a new human-land ratio: as long as the number of people continues to rise on a given amount of land, or the amount of land available continues to fall for a constant number of people, the need for increasing labor investment is expected to continue as well. She then proposed that "the growth of population is a major determinant of technological change in agriculture," which stems from the necessity to raise output per unit of area to offset the increase in labor requirements associated with more intensive land use. According to Boserup, population becomes the independent variable, and the dependent variables become agrotechnology, the intensiveness with which labor inputs are applied, and hence the capacity of the system to support people. See Esther Boserup, Population and Technology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981); and idem, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth (Chicago: Aldine, 1965).
26. There are additional effects other than those coming from the demand side. These occur directly on the supply side and involve certain time lags. For example, there are more children who survive to enter the labor force (because of declining mortality) and they seek employment 12-15 years later. To the extent that farm families have insufficient plots to provide productive employment, and to the extent off-farm employment opportunities are not available in the vicinity, young children will tend to migrate away. Second, having a larger number of children survive to adulthood means that existing family plots need to be divided among more children, leading to fragmentation of landholdings in a generation (30 years). Eventually land plots reach subsistence sizes that can no longer support the larger families, which again results in out-migration of either individuals or entire family units. When they move to other rural areas, this again results in land extensification, with the increased use of marginal lands and the effects described above. When they migrate to urban areas instead, their effects on land use are indirect, due to increased urban consumption demands. See Bilsborrow, "Population Growth, Internal Migration, and Environmental Degradation," pp. 125-48.
27. Douglas Southgate and Morris Whitaker, "Promoting Resource Degradation in Latin America: Tropical Deforestation, Soil Erosion, and Coastal Ecosystem Disturbance in Ecuador," Economic Development and Cultural Change 40 (July 1992): 787-807.
28. Yujiro Hayami and Vernon W. Ruttan, Agricultural Development: An International Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).
29. Hans Binswanger and Joachim Von Braun, "Technological Change and Commercialization in Agriculture: Impact on the Poor," World Bank Research Observer 6, no. 1 (1991); and E. Hochman and D. Zilberman, "Optimal Strategies of Development Processes of Frontier Environments," Science of the Total Environment 55, no. 1 (1986): 111-20.
30. Hans Binswanger and Joachim Von Braun, "Technological Change and Commercialization in Agriculture: Impact on the Poor," World Bank Research Observer 6, no. 1 (1991); and E. Hochman and D. Zilberman, "Optimal Strategies of Development Processes of Frontier Environments," Science of the Total Environment 55, no. 1 (1986): 111-20.
31. Philip M. Fearnside, Human Carrying Capacity of the Brazilian Rainforest (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
32. For example, the greater the availability of potentially arable land, the more likely there is to be extensification rather than intensification. The country's level of development, government policy priorities, and ability to finance roads and infrastructure to "open up" new lands are also important. Institutional factors and government policies regulating access to land (e.g., land tenure, concentration of landholdings, privatization, etc.) and land use (price, taxation and import/export policies, agricultural research and extension services, credit availability, etc.) can play major roles as well. For a discussion, see Prabhu Pingali and Hans Binswanger, "Population Density and Agricultural Intensification: A Study of the Evolution of Technologies in Tropical Agriculture," in Population Growth and Economic Development: Issues and Evidence, ed. D. Gale Johnson and Ronald D. Lee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).
33. Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture."
34. World Bank, World Development Report 1992 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
35. Hans Binswanger, "Agricultural and Rural Development: Painful Lessons" (Simon Brandt Address delivered at the 32nd annual meeting of the Agricultural Economics Association of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 21 September 1994).
36. Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management.
37. Substantial contributions to the global increase in food production are well recognized. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) estimates that beginning in the early 1960s, the adoption of the new technologies increased food production by an amount sufficient to feed one billion additional people. Nikos Alexandratos, World Agriculture toward 2000: An FAO Study (Rome and London: FAO and Belhaven Press, 1988), reports that between 1961 and 1985, on a global average, yields of the major food crops rose impressively: by 41 percent in rice, 45 in maize, and 70 in wheat. As a result, world cereal production doubled to 1.9 million tons between 1961 and the late 1980s. See Peter B. R. Hazell and C. Ramsamy, The Green Revolution Reconsidered: The Impact of the High-Yielding Rice Varieties in South India (Baltimore: MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); and Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture."
38. Substantial contributions to the global increase in food production are well recognized. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) estimates that beginning in the early 1960s, the adoption of the new technologies increased food production by an amount sufficient to feed one billion additional people. Nikos Alexandratos, World Agriculture toward 2000: An FAO Study (Rome and London: FAO and Belhaven Press, 1988), reports that between 1961 and 1985, on a global average, yields of the major food crops rose impressively: by 41 percent in rice, 45 in maize, and 70 in wheat. As a result, world cereal production doubled to 1.9 million tons between 1961 and the late 1980s. See Peter B. R. Hazell and C. Ramsamy, The Green Revolution Reconsidered: The Impact of the High-Yielding Rice Varieties in South India (Baltimore: MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); and Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture."
39. Substantial contributions to the global increase in food production are well recognized. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) estimates that beginning in the early 1960s, the adoption of the new technologies increased food production by an amount sufficient to feed one billion additional people. Nikos Alexandratos, World Agriculture toward 2000: An FAO Study (Rome and London: FAO and Belhaven Press, 1988), reports that between 1961 and 1985, on a global average, yields of the major food crops rose impressively: by 41 percent in rice, 45 in maize, and 70 in wheat. As a result, world cereal production doubled to 1.9 million tons between 1961 and the late 1980s. See Peter B. R. Hazell and C. Ramsamy, The Green Revolution Reconsidered: The Impact of the High-Yielding Rice Varieties in South India (Baltimore: MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); and Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture."
40. Mark W. Rosegrant and Mark Svendsen, "Asian Food Production in the 1990s: Irrigation Investment and Management Policy," Food Policy 18 (February 1993): 13-32.
41. Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, "Alleviating Poverty, Intensifying Agriculture."
42. FAO, "Water Policies and Agricultural Development" (FAO, Rome, 1993).
43. Montague Yudelman, "Sustainable and Equitable Development in Irrigated Environments," in Environment and the Poor: Development Strategies for a Common Agenda, ed. Leonard.
44. WHO (World Health Organization), Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Irrigated Agricultural Development Projects (Geneva: WHO, 1983); and idem. Disease Prevention and Control in Water Development Schemes (Geneva: WHO, 1980).
45. WHO (World Health Organization), Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Irrigated Agricultural Development Projects (Geneva: WHO, 1983); and idem. Disease Prevention and Control in Water Development Schemes (Geneva: WHO, 1980).
46. Michael Hansen, Escape from the Pesticide Treadmill: Alternatives to Pesticides in Developing Countries" (Mount Vernon, NY: Institute for Consumer Policy Research, 1987); FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture (Rome: FAO, 1989); and Peter Weber, "A Place for Pesticides?" Worldwatch 5, no. 3 (1992): 22-23.
47. Michael Hansen, Escape from the Pesticide Treadmill: Alternatives to Pesticides in Developing Countries" (Mount Vernon, NY: Institute for Consumer Policy Research, 1987); FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture (Rome: FAO, 1989); and Peter Weber, "A Place for Pesticides?" Worldwatch 5, no. 3 (1992): 22-23.
48. Michael Hansen, Escape from the Pesticide Treadmill: Alternatives to Pesticides in Developing Countries" (Mount Vernon, NY: Institute for Consumer Policy Research, 1987); FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture (Rome: FAO, 1989); and Peter Weber, "A Place for Pesticides?" Worldwatch 5, no. 3 (1992): 22-23.
49. Hansen, Escape from the Pesticide Treadmill.
50. Billie DeWalt, P. Vergne, and M. Hardin, "Population, Aquaculture, and Environmental Deterioration: The Gulf of Fonseca, Honduras" (paper prepared for the Rene Dubos Center Forum on Population, Environment, and Development, New York Academy of Medicine, 22-23 September 1993).
51. Gordon R. Conway and Jules N. Pretty, Unwelcome Harvest: Agriculture and Pollution (London: Earthscan, 1991).
52. Agnes C. Rola and Prabhu L. Pingali, Pesticides, Rice Productivity, and Farmers' Health: An Economic Assessment (Manila and Washington, DC: International Rice Research Institute and World Resources Institute, 1993).
53. World Bank, World Development Report 1992.
54. Although the term "indigenous knowledge systems" has become standardized in the literature, in this paper we use the terms "traditional," "local," and "indigenous" systems to refer to the combination of knowledge, productive resources, input, and services applied systematically by rural peoples to produce desired outputs. They include both the physical forms of technology (e.g., tools, seeds, etc.) and the methods, practices, and strategies, including forms of social organization. In addition, rural peoples include not only "native peoples" but also peasant farmers, settlers, and other resource users.
55. For discussions, see Billie DeWalt, "Using Indigenous Knowledge to Improve Agriculture and Natural Resource Management" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Robert E. Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers and the Expanding Challenges of International Agricultural Research" (paper delivered at the Conference of Farmers and Food Systems, Lima, Peru, 26-30 September 1988; Lori Thrupp, "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: From Displacement to Empowerment for Third World People," Agriculture and Human Values 3 (1989): 13-25; and John W. Mellor and Gunvant M. Desai, eds., Agricultural Change and Rural Poverty: Variations on a Theme by Dharm Narain (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).
56. For discussions, see Billie DeWalt, "Using Indigenous Knowledge to Improve Agriculture and Natural Resource Management" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Robert E. Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers and the Expanding Challenges of International Agricultural Research" (paper delivered at the Conference of Farmers and Food Systems, Lima, Peru, 26-30 September 1988; Lori Thrupp, "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: From Displacement to Empowerment for Third World People," Agriculture and Human Values 3 (1989): 13-25; and John W. Mellor and Gunvant M. Desai, eds., Agricultural Change and Rural Poverty: Variations on a Theme by Dharm Narain (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).
57. For discussions, see Billie DeWalt, "Using Indigenous Knowledge to Improve Agriculture and Natural Resource Management" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Robert E. Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers and the Expanding Challenges of International Agricultural Research" (paper delivered at the Conference of Farmers and Food Systems, Lima, Peru, 26-30 September 1988; Lori Thrupp, "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: From Displacement to Empowerment for Third World People," Agriculture and Human Values 3 (1989): 13-25; and John W. Mellor and Gunvant M. Desai, eds., Agricultural Change and Rural Poverty: Variations on a Theme by Dharm Narain (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).
58. For discussions, see Billie DeWalt, "Using Indigenous Knowledge to Improve Agriculture and Natural Resource Management" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Robert E. Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers and the Expanding Challenges of International Agricultural Research" (paper delivered at the Conference of Farmers and Food Systems, Lima, Peru, 26-30 September 1988; Lori Thrupp, "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: From Displacement to Empowerment for Third World People," Agriculture and Human Values 3 (1989): 13-25; and John W. Mellor and Gunvant M. Desai, eds., Agricultural Change and Rural Poverty: Variations on a Theme by Dharm Narain (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).
59. Coen Reijntjes, Bertus Haverkort, and Ann Waters-Bayer, Farming for the Future: An Introduction to Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (London: Macmillan Press, 1992).
60. Michael J. Dover and Lee M. Talbot, To Feed the Earth: Agro-ecology for Sustainable Development (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 1987).
61. Many governments have promoted fertilizer and pesticide use by subsidizing, explicitly or implicitly, their prices. Mechanisms such as access to foreign exchange on favorable terms, tax exemptions or reduced rates, easy credit, and sales below cost are used to promote pesticide use. See Robert Repetto, "Paying the Price: Pesticide Subsidies in Developing Countries," Research Report 2 (World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, 1985).
62. For a discussion, see Klaus M. Leisinger, "Sociopolitical Effects of New Biotechnologies in Developing Countries," Discussion Paper No. 2 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1995).
63. Yujiro Hayami and Vernon Ruttan, "Population Growth and Agricultural Productivity," in Population Growth and Economic Development: Issues and Evidence, ed. Johnson and Lee.
64. Hayami and Ruttan, "Population Growth and Agricultural Productivity."
65. For discussions, see Niels O. Roling, Extension Science: Information Systems in Agricultural Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Stephen Biggs, A Multiple Source of Innovation Model of Agricultural Research and Technology Promotion, Agricultural Administration Network Paper No. 6 (London: ODI, 1989); and Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First.
66. For discussions, see Niels O. Roling, Extension Science: Information Systems in Agricultural Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Stephen Biggs, A Multiple Source of Innovation Model of Agricultural Research and Technology Promotion, Agricultural Administration Network Paper No. 6 (London: ODI, 1989); and Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First.
67. For discussions, see Niels O. Roling, Extension Science: Information Systems in Agricultural Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Stephen Biggs, A Multiple Source of Innovation Model of Agricultural Research and Technology Promotion, Agricultural Administration Network Paper No. 6 (London: ODI, 1989); and Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First.
68. Pingali and Binswanger, "Population Density and Agricultural Intensification."
69. For discussions, see Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres"; and Jules Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practices for Sustainable Growth and Self-Reliance (London: Earthscan, 1995).
70. For discussions, see Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres"; and Jules Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practices for Sustainable Growth and Self-Reliance (London: Earthscan, 1995).
71. TAC/CGIAR (Technical Advisory Committee/Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), The Ecoregional Approach to Research in the CGIAR: Report of the TAC/ Center Directors Working Group (Rome: TAC Secretariat of the CGIAR, 1993).
72. B. Rajasekaran, Dennis M. Warren, and S. C. Babu, "Indigenous Natural-Resource Management Systems for Sustainable Agricultural Development - a Global Perspective," Journal of International Development 3 (July 1991): 387-401.
73. Constance McCorkle, "Veterinary Anthropology," Human Organization 48 (Summer 1989): 156-62.
74. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, From Research to Innovation: Getting the Most from Interaction with NGOs in Farming Systems Research and Extension, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 43 (London: International Institute for Environment and Development [IIED], 1994); and John Farrington and Adrienne Martin, Farmer Participation in Agricultural Research: A Review of Concepts and Practices, Agricultural Administration Unit Occasional Paper No. 9 (London: Overseas Development Institute [ODI], 1988).
75. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, From Research to Innovation: Getting the Most from Interaction with NGOs in Farming Systems Research and Extension, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 43 (London: International Institute for Environment and Development [IIED], 1994); and John Farrington and Adrienne Martin, Farmer Participation in Agricultural Research: A Review of Concepts and Practices, Agricultural Administration Unit Occasional Paper No. 9 (London: Overseas Development Institute [ODI], 1988).
76. Ian Scoones and John Thompson, eds., Beyond Farmer First: Rural People 's Knowledge, Agricultural Research, and Extension Practice (London: Intermediate Technology Publications and IIED, 1994).
77. TAC/CGIAR, Ecoregional Approach to Research in the CGIAR.
78. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
79. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
80. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
81. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
82. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
83. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
84. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
85. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
86. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
87. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
88. See, for example, David Brokensha, Dennis M. Warren, and Oswald Werner, eds., Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development (Lanham: University Press of America, 1980); Stephen Biggs and E. Clay, "Sources of Innovation in Agricultural Technology," World Development 9 (August 1981): 321-36; Robert E. Rhoades, Breaking New Ground: Agricultural Anthropology (Lima: International Potato Center [CIP], 1984); Paul Richards, indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1985); Gerald G. Marten, ed., Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: A Human Ecology Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); Gene C. Wilken, Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural and Resource Management in Mexico and Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Dennis M. Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development, Discussion Paper No. 127 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); Dennis M. Warren and Kristin Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development, Gatekeeper Series Paper No. 10 (London: IIED, 1989); Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, Farmer First; Pretty, Regenerating Agriculture; and Scoones and Thompson, Beyond Farmer First.
89. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
90. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
91. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
92. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
93. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
94. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central America and Colombia," in Sustainable Resource Development in the Third World, ed. Douglas D. Southgate and John F. Disinger (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987); Marilyn W. Hoskins, "Observations on Indigenous and Modern Agro-Forestry Activities in West Africa," in Social, Economic, and Institutional Aspects of Agro-forestry, ed. J. K. Jackson (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1984); Bruce Wilcox, "Rural Development and Indigenous Resources: Toward a Geographic-Based Assessment Framework" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Bruce Wilcox, "In Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Institutional and Technical Requirements for a Global System and the Need for Strengthening Capacity at the National Level" (report prepared for the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1991).
95. See, for example, Richard W. Franke and Barbara H. Chasin, Seeds of Famine: Ecological Destruction and the Development Dilemma in the West African Sahel (Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980); Rundheersing Bheenick, Successful Development in Africa: Case Studies of Projects, Programs, and Policies, EDI Development Policy Case Series, Analytical Case Studies, No. 1 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Thierry G. Verhelst, No Life without Roots: Culture and Development (London: Zed Books, 1990); James R. Barborak and Gina C. Green, "Implementing the World Conservation Strategy: Success Stories from Central
96. Maryam Niamir, Community Forestry: Herders' Decision-Making in Natural Resources Management in Arid and Semi-arid Africa, Community Forest Note No. 4 (Rome: FAO, 1990).
97. Sunday O. Titilola, The Economics of Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge Systems into Agricultural Development: A Model and Analytical Framework, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 17 (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1990); Arthur J. Dommen, "A Rationale for African Low-Resource Agriculture in Terms of Economic Theory," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for Agriculture and International Development, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 11, ed. Dennis M. Warren, L. Jan Slikkerveer, and Sunday O. Titilola (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1988); and Arthur J. Dommen, Innovation in African Agriculture (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988).
98. Sunday O. Titilola, The Economics of Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge Systems into Agricultural Development: A Model and Analytical Framework, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 17 (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1990); Arthur J. Dommen, "A Rationale for African Low-Resource Agriculture in Terms of Economic Theory," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for Agriculture and International Development, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 11, ed. Dennis M. Warren, L. Jan Slikkerveer, and Sunday O. Titilola (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1988); and Arthur J. Dommen, Innovation in African Agriculture (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988).
99. Sunday O. Titilola, The Economics of Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge Systems into Agricultural Development: A Model and Analytical Framework, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 17 (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1990); Arthur J. Dommen, "A Rationale for African Low-Resource Agriculture in Terms of Economic Theory," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for Agriculture and International Development, Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 11, ed. Dennis M. Warren, L. Jan Slikkerveer, and Sunday O. Titilola (Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University, 1988); and Arthur J. Dommen, Innovation in African Agriculture (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988).
100. Kristin Cashman, "Agricultural Research Centers and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in a Worldwide Perspective: Where Do We Go from Here?" in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola.
101. Mark Poffenberger, ed., Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian, 1990).
102. Rosalie Norem, Rhonda Yoder, and Yolanda Martin, "Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and Gender Issues in Third World Agricultural Development," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola.
103. William Ascher and Robert Healy, Natural Resource Policymaking in Developing Countries: Environment, Economic Growth, and Income Distribution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990); Narpat Jodha, "Mountain Agriculture: The Search for Sustainability," Journal of Farming Systems Research-Extension 1 (Spring 1990): 55-75; Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge; and Warren and Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development.
104. William Ascher and Robert Healy, Natural Resource Policymaking in Developing Countries: Environment, Economic Growth, and Income Distribution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990); Narpat Jodha, "Mountain Agriculture: The Search for Sustainability," Journal of Farming Systems Research-Extension 1 (Spring 1990): 55-75; Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge; and Warren and Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development.
105. William Ascher and Robert Healy, Natural Resource Policymaking in Developing Countries: Environment, Economic Growth, and Income Distribution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990); Narpat Jodha, "Mountain Agriculture: The Search for Sustainability," Journal of Farming Systems Research-Extension 1 (Spring 1990): 55-75; Warren, Using Indigenous Knowledge; and Warren and Cashman, Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development.
106. Lorna M. Butler and Jack Waud, "Strengthening Extension through the Concepts of Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSRE) and Sustainability," Journal of Farming Systems Research-Extension 1 (Spring 1990): 77-92;
107. Michael M. Cernea, John K. Coulter, and John F. A. Russell, "Building the Research-Extension-Farmer Continuum: Some Current Issues," in Research-Extension-Farmer: A Two-Way Continuum for Agricultural Development, ed. idem (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1985);
108. Glenn L. Denning, "Integrating Agricultural Extension Programs with Framing Systems Research," in Research-Extension-Farmer, ed. Cernea, Coulter, and Russell;
109. Christoffel DenBiggelaar, "Farming Systems Development: Synthesizing Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge Systems," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 25-36; Niels Rolling and Paul Engel, "IKS and Knowledge Management: Utilizing Indigenous Knowledge in Institutional Knowledge Systems," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola; Jon R. Moris, Extension Alternatives in Tropical Africa (London: ODI, 1991); and James Fairhead, "Fields of Struggle: Towards a Social History of Farming Knowledge and Practice in a Bwisha Community, Kivu, Zaire (Ph.D. diss., SOAS, University of London, 1990).
110. Christoffel DenBiggelaar, "Farming Systems Development: Synthesizing Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge Systems," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 25-36; Niels Rolling and Paul Engel, "IKS and Knowledge Management: Utilizing Indigenous Knowledge in Institutional Knowledge Systems," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola; Jon R. Moris, Extension Alternatives in Tropical Africa (London: ODI, 1991); and James Fairhead, "Fields of Struggle: Towards a Social History of Farming Knowledge and Practice in a Bwisha Community, Kivu, Zaire (Ph.D. diss., SOAS, University of London, 1990).
111. Christoffel DenBiggelaar, "Farming Systems Development: Synthesizing Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge Systems," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 25-36; Niels Rolling and Paul Engel, "IKS and Knowledge Management: Utilizing Indigenous Knowledge in Institutional Knowledge Systems," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola; Jon R. Moris, Extension Alternatives in Tropical Africa (London: ODI, 1991); and James Fairhead, "Fields of Struggle: Towards a Social History of Farming Knowledge and Practice in a Bwisha Community, Kivu, Zaire (Ph.D. diss., SOAS, University of London, 1990).
112. Christoffel DenBiggelaar, "Farming Systems Development: Synthesizing Indigenous and Scientific Knowledge Systems," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 25-36; Niels Rolling and Paul Engel, "IKS and Knowledge Management: Utilizing Indigenous Knowledge in Institutional Knowledge Systems," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems, ed. Warren, Slikkerveer, and Titilola; Jon R. Moris, Extension Alternatives in Tropical Africa (London: ODI, 1991); and James Fairhead, "Fields of Struggle: Towards a Social History of Farming Knowledge and Practice in a Bwisha Community, Kivu, Zaire (Ph.D. diss., SOAS, University of London, 1990).
113. Cynthia C. Cook and Mikael Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmers' Perspective, Technical Paper No. 112 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Donald A. Messerschmidt, "Community Forestry Management and the Opportunities of Local Traditions: A View from Nepal," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The Cultural Dimension of Development, ed. Dennis M. Warren, David Brokensha, and L. Jan Slikkerveer (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991); Bill Rau, From Feast to Famine: Official Cures and Grassroots Remedies to Africa's Food Crisis (London: Zed, 1991); David Groenfeldt, "Building on Tradition: Indigenous Irrigation Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Asia," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 114-20; and Norman Uphoff, "Fitting Projects to People," in Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, ed. Michael M. Cernea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
114. Cynthia C. Cook and Mikael Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmers' Perspective, Technical Paper No. 112 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Donald A. Messerschmidt, "Community Forestry Management and the Opportunities of Local Traditions: A View from Nepal," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The Cultural Dimension of Development, ed. Dennis M. Warren, David Brokensha, and L. Jan Slikkerveer (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991); Bill Rau, From Feast to Famine: Official Cures and Grassroots Remedies to Africa's Food Crisis (London: Zed, 1991); David Groenfeldt, "Building on Tradition: Indigenous Irrigation Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Asia," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 114-20; and Norman Uphoff, "Fitting Projects to People," in Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, ed. Michael M. Cernea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
115. Cynthia C. Cook and Mikael Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmers' Perspective, Technical Paper No. 112 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Donald A. Messerschmidt, "Community Forestry Management and the Opportunities of Local Traditions: A View from Nepal," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The Cultural Dimension of Development, ed. Dennis M. Warren, David Brokensha, and L. Jan Slikkerveer (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991); Bill Rau, From Feast to Famine: Official Cures and Grassroots Remedies to Africa's Food Crisis (London: Zed, 1991); David Groenfeldt, "Building on Tradition: Indigenous Irrigation Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Asia," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 114-20; and Norman Uphoff, "Fitting Projects to People," in Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, ed. Michael M. Cernea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
116. Cynthia C. Cook and Mikael Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmers' Perspective, Technical Paper No. 112 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Donald A. Messerschmidt, "Community Forestry Management and the Opportunities of Local Traditions: A View from Nepal," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The Cultural Dimension of Development, ed. Dennis M. Warren, David Brokensha, and L. Jan Slikkerveer (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991); Bill Rau, From Feast to Famine: Official Cures and Grassroots Remedies to Africa's Food Crisis (London: Zed, 1991); David Groenfeldt, "Building on Tradition: Indigenous Irrigation Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Asia," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 114-20; and Norman Uphoff, "Fitting Projects to People," in Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, ed. Michael M. Cernea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
117. Cynthia C. Cook and Mikael Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmers' Perspective, Technical Paper No. 112 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989); Donald A. Messerschmidt, "Community Forestry Management and the Opportunities of Local Traditions: A View from Nepal," in Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The Cultural Dimension of Development, ed. Dennis M. Warren, David Brokensha, and L. Jan Slikkerveer (London: Kegan Paul International, 1991); Bill Rau, From Feast to Famine: Official Cures and Grassroots Remedies to Africa's Food Crisis (London: Zed, 1991); David Groenfeldt, "Building on Tradition: Indigenous Irrigation Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Asia," Agriculture and Human Values 8 (Spring 1991): 114-20; and Norman Uphoff, "Fitting Projects to People," in Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, ed. Michael M. Cernea (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
118. Bertus Haverkort, W. Hiemstra, Coen Reijntjes, and S. Essers, "Strengthening Farmers' Capacity for Technology Development," IIEA Newsletter 4, no. 3 (1988): 3-7.
119. The case studies themselves will not be covered here since they are discussed in a forthcoming volume edited by the authors, Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America (to be published in 1998 by Pittsburgh University Press). A few of these experiences were presented in a recent World Bank-sponsored meeting entitled Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, held at the World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995.
120. Jacqueline A. Ashby, "The Effects of Different Types of Farmer Participation on the Management of On-Farm Trials," Agricultural Administration and Extension 24 (1987): 234-52; Jacqueline A. Ashby, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, Carlos Quirós, José Roa, and J. Beltrán, "Organizing Experimenting Farmers for Participation in Agricultural Research and Technology Development" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Jacqueline A. Ashby, Carlos Quiros, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, and José Roa, "Farmer Participation Early in the Evaluation of Agricultural Technologies" (paper delivered at the Seminar on Reviving Local Self-Reliance: Challenges for Rural/Regional Development in Eastern and Southern Africa, Arusha, Tanzania, 21-24 February 1990).
121. Jacqueline A. Ashby, "The Effects of Different Types of Farmer Participation on the Management of On-Farm Trials," Agricultural Administration and Extension 24 (1987): 234-52; Jacqueline A. Ashby, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, Carlos Quirós, José Roa, and J. Beltrán, "Organizing Experimenting Farmers for Participation in Agricultural Research and Technology Development" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Jacqueline A. Ashby, Carlos Quiros, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, and José Roa, "Farmer Participation Early in the Evaluation of Agricultural Technologies" (paper delivered at the Seminar on Reviving Local Self-Reliance: Challenges for Rural/Regional Development in Eastern and Southern Africa, Arusha, Tanzania, 21-24 February 1990).
122. Jacqueline A. Ashby, "The Effects of Different Types of Farmer Participation on the Management of On-Farm Trials," Agricultural Administration and Extension 24 (1987): 234-52; Jacqueline A. Ashby, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, Carlos Quirós, José Roa, and J. Beltrán, "Organizing Experimenting Farmers for Participation in Agricultural Research and Technology Development" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Jacqueline A. Ashby, Carlos Quiros, Teresa Gracia, Maria del Pilar Guerrero, and José Roa, "Farmer Participation Early in the Evaluation of Agricultural Technologies" (paper delivered at the Seminar on Reviving Local Self-Reliance: Challenges for Rural/Regional Development in Eastern and Southern Africa, Arusha, Tanzania, 21-24 February 1990).
123. Ashby, Gracia, Guerrero, Quirós, Roa, and Beltrán, "Organizing Experimenting Farmers."
124. Farrington and Martin, Farmer Participation in Agricultural Research.
125. D. Maurya, A. Bottrall, and John Farrington, "Improved Livelihoods, Genetic Diversity, and Farmer Participation: A Strategy for Rice Breeding in Rainfed Areas of India," Experimental Agriculture 24, no. 3 (1988).
126. John Cortes, "Seed Systems Development in Peru" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Steven Jaffee and Jitendra Srivastava, Seed System Development: The Appropriate Roles of the Private and Public Sectors, Discussion Paper No. 167 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992); and Steve Wiggins and Elizabeth Cromwell, "NGOs and Seed Provision to Smallholders in Developing Countries," World Development 23 (March 1995): 413-22.
127. John Cortes, "Seed Systems Development in Peru" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Steven Jaffee and Jitendra Srivastava, Seed System Development: The Appropriate Roles of the Private and Public Sectors, Discussion Paper No. 167 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992); and Steve Wiggins and Elizabeth Cromwell, "NGOs and Seed Provision to Smallholders in Developing Countries," World Development 23 (March 1995): 413-22.
128. John Cortes, "Seed Systems Development in Peru" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Steven Jaffee and Jitendra Srivastava, Seed System Development: The Appropriate Roles of the Private and Public Sectors, Discussion Paper No. 167 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992); and Steve Wiggins and Elizabeth Cromwell, "NGOs and Seed Provision to Smallholders in Developing Countries," World Development 23 (March 1995): 413-22.
129. Examples of detailed economic analyses include a long-term case study in Western Honduras by Felber and Foletti which found that Green Revolution corn technology offered a lower economic return than traditional growing practices. See R. Felber and C. Foletti, "Estudio sobre Agricultura Migratoria en la Zona de Guajiquiro, Opatoro" (Marcala, Honduras: Programa Marcala-Goascoran, Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Cooperación Suiza del Desarrollo, 1989). Mausolff and Farber also compared the economic costs and benefits of chemical and low-purchased-input ecological technologies in two Honduran rural development projects and found that traditional practices based on cover cropping with velvet bean (Macuna pruriens) have tripled average corn yields from a baseline of roughly 700 to 2000 kg per hectare and having used only one-fifth of the commonly applied chemical fertilizer. See Christopher Mausolff and Stephen Farber, "An Economic Analysis of Ecological Agricultural Technologies among Peasant Farmers in Honduras," Ecological Economics 12 (March 1995): 237-48.
130. Examples of detailed economic analyses include a long-term case study in Western Honduras by Felber and Foletti which found that Green Revolution corn technology offered a lower economic return than traditional growing practices. See R. Felber and C. Foletti, "Estudio sobre Agricultura Migratoria en la Zona de Guajiquiro, Opatoro" (Marcala, Honduras: Programa Marcala-Goascoran, Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Cooperación Suiza del Desarrollo, 1989). Mausolff and Farber also compared the economic costs and benefits of chemical and low-purchased-input ecological technologies in two Honduran rural development projects and found that traditional practices based on cover cropping with velvet bean (Macuna pruriens) have tripled average corn yields from a baseline of roughly 700 to 2000 kg per hectare and having used only one-fifth of the commonly applied chemical fertilizer. See Christopher Mausolff and Stephen Farber, "An Economic Analysis of Ecological Agricultural Technologies among Peasant Farmers in Honduras," Ecological Economics 12 (March 1995): 237-48.
131. Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation.
132. Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation.
133. Dennis M. Warren, "Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers."
134. Dennis M. Warren, "Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); and Rhoades, "Changing Perceptions of Farmers."
135. Nigel Smith, "Biodiversity and Agroforestry along the Amazon Floodplain" (paper delivered at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, April 25-26, 1995).
136. DeWalt, "Using Indigenous Knowledge."
137. Chris Delgado, "Africa's Changing Agricultural Development Strategies: Past and Present Paradigms as a Guide to the Future," Discussion Paper No. 3 (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1995).
138. Sara Scherr and Peter B. R. Hazell, "Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategies in Fragile Lands" (paper prepared for the American Agricultural Economics Association 1993 meeting entitled International Pre-Conference on Post-Green Revolution Agricultural Development Strategies in the Third World: What Next? held in Orlando, Florida, 30-31 July 1993).
139. Anthony Bebbington, "Organizing for Change - Organizing for Modernization? Campesino Federations and Technical Change in Andean and Amazonian Resource Management" (paper presented at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Anthony Bebbington, Graham Thiele, Penelope Davies, Martin Prager, and Hernando Riveros, eds., Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles inf Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation; and Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres."
140. Anthony Bebbington, "Organizing for Change - Organizing for Modernization? Campesino Federations and Technical Change in Andean and Amazonian Resource Management" (paper presented at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Anthony Bebbington, Graham Thiele, Penelope Davies, Martin Prager, and Hernando Riveros, eds., Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles inf Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation; and Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres."
141. Anthony Bebbington, "Organizing for Change - Organizing for Modernization? Campesino Federations and Technical Change in Andean and Amazonian Resource Management" (paper presented at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Anthony Bebbington, Graham Thiele, Penelope Davies, Martin Prager, and Hernando Riveros, eds., Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles inf Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation; and Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres."
142. Anthony Bebbington, "Organizing for Change - Organizing for Modernization? Campesino Federations and Technical Change in Andean and Amazonian Resource Management" (paper presented at the Workshop on Traditional and Modern Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, World Bank, Washington, DC, 25-26 April 1995); Anthony Bebbington, Graham Thiele, Penelope Davies, Martin Prager, and Hernando Riveros, eds., Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles inf Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); Farrington and Bebbington, From Research to Innovation; and Chambers and Pretty, "Are the International Agricultural Research Centres."
143. Wiens argues that irrigation and water rights are as unequally distributed as land ownership in Latin America, and that the effects on efficiency may be as serious as the equity issue. For example, if water rights usurped from smallholder agricultural areas in the Andean highlands were restored, and the traditional conservation structures and management institutions rehabilitated, an estimated 40 percent increase in farm productivity could occur. See Wiens, Rural Poverty, Sustainable Natural Resource Management.
144. Garrett, "20-20 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment in Latin America."