Local self-government in Russia: Awakening from slumber?

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 43-58

  Kirkow, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DECENTRALISATION; DEVOLUTION; POLITICAL POWER; SELF-GOVERNMENT;

RUSSIA;

EID: 0031394359     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139708412426     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. 'Local' refers to the second lower tier of sub-national administrative-territorial division, including the sub-regional level of cities and city boroughs (raiony) as well as various rural areas and settlements (raiony, volosti, obshchiny, uezdy). Earlier ideas on this topic were expressed in P. Kirkow, 'Roulette zwischen Zentrum und Regionen. Rußlands asymmetrischer Föderalismus', Osteuropa, 45, 11, 1995, pp. 1015-1016.
2. For the former position see H. Wollmann, 'Variationen institutioneller Transformation in sozialistischen Ländern: Die (Wieder-) Einführung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung in Ostdeutschland, Ungarn, Polen und Rußland', in H. Wollmann, H. Wiesenthal & F. Bönker (eds), Transformation sozialistischer Gesellschaften: Am Ende des Anfangs (Leviathan-Sonderband, Opladen, 1995), and for the latter see S. Medvedev, 'Post-Soviet Developments: A Regional Interpretation (A Methodological Review)', in K. Segbers & S. De Spiegeleire (eds), Post-Soviet Puzzles. Mapping the Political Economy of the Former Soviet Union, vol. II (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995). For earlier discussions on the attempt by provincial élites to convert political power into economic wealth see M. McAuley, 'Politics, Economics, and Élite Realignment in Russia: A Regional Perspective', Soviet Economy, 8, 1, 1992, pp. 46-88 and E. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya (Moscow, Evraziya, 1995).
3. For the former position see H. Wollmann, 'Variationen institutioneller Transformation in sozialistischen Ländern: Die (Wieder-) Einführung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung in Ostdeutschland, Ungarn, Polen und Rußland', in H. Wollmann, H. Wiesenthal & F. Bönker (eds), Transformation sozialistischer Gesellschaften: Am Ende des Anfangs (Leviathan-Sonderband, Opladen, 1995), and for the latter see S. Medvedev, 'Post-Soviet Developments: A Regional Interpretation (A Methodological Review)', in K. Segbers & S. De Spiegeleire (eds), Post-Soviet Puzzles. Mapping the Political Economy of the Former Soviet Union, vol. II (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995). For earlier discussions on the attempt by provincial élites to convert political power into economic wealth see M. McAuley, 'Politics, Economics, and Élite Realignment in Russia: A Regional Perspective', Soviet Economy, 8, 1, 1992, pp. 46-88 and E. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya (Moscow, Evraziya, 1995).
4. For the former position see H. Wollmann, 'Variationen institutioneller Transformation in sozialistischen Ländern: Die (Wieder-) Einführung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung in Ostdeutschland, Ungarn, Polen und Rußland', in H. Wollmann, H. Wiesenthal & F. Bönker (eds), Transformation sozialistischer Gesellschaften: Am Ende des Anfangs (Leviathan-Sonderband, Opladen, 1995), and for the latter see S. Medvedev, 'Post-Soviet Developments: A Regional Interpretation (A Methodological Review)', in K. Segbers & S. De Spiegeleire (eds), Post-Soviet Puzzles. Mapping the Political Economy of the Former Soviet Union, vol. II (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995). For earlier discussions on the attempt by provincial élites to convert political power into economic wealth see M. McAuley, 'Politics, Economics, and Élite Realignment in Russia: A Regional Perspective', Soviet Economy, 8, 1, 1992, pp. 46-88 and E. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya (Moscow, Evraziya, 1995).
5. For the former position see H. Wollmann, 'Variationen institutioneller Transformation in sozialistischen Ländern: Die (Wieder-) Einführung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung in Ostdeutschland, Ungarn, Polen und Rußland', in H. Wollmann, H. Wiesenthal & F. Bönker (eds), Transformation sozialistischer Gesellschaften: Am Ende des Anfangs (Leviathan-Sonderband, Opladen, 1995), and for the latter see S. Medvedev, 'Post-Soviet Developments: A Regional Interpretation (A Methodological Review)', in K. Segbers & S. De Spiegeleire (eds), Post-Soviet Puzzles. Mapping the Political Economy of the Former Soviet Union, vol. II (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995). For earlier discussions on the attempt by provincial élites to convert political power into economic wealth see M. McAuley, 'Politics, Economics, and Élite Realignment in Russia: A Regional Perspective', Soviet Economy, 8, 1, 1992, pp. 46-88 and E. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya (Moscow, Evraziya, 1995).
6. N. Berdyaev, Sud'ba Rossii (Moscow, Sovetskii Pisatel', 1990), pp. 11-14. In the words of Berdyaev, '⋯ it is almost impossible to move Russia ahead, so much is it burdened, inert and lazy ⋯ personalities are everywhere suppressed within an organic collective. Our social groups on the ground are lacking law consciousness and even dignity; they don't take any initiatives and activities, but always rely on what others are doing for them' (p. 21).
7. A. Campbell, 'City Government in Russia', in J. Gibson & P. Hanson (eds), Transformation from Below. Local Power and the Political Economy of Post-Communist Transitions (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 1996), pp. 38-39.
8. The development of local self-government in Russia in 1991-93 was extensively discussed in previous Western studies. For an excellent account see H. Wollmann, 'Jelzins Reformpolitik im Dickicht des institutionellen Umbruchs und des Machtkampfes in Rußland', in H. U. Derlien, U. Gerhardt & F. W. Scharpf (eds), Systemrationalität und Partialinteresse. Festschrift für Renate Mayntz (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1994), pp. 329-353 and K. Mildner, 'Lokale Finanzen und kommunale Selbstverwaltung in Rußland', Osteuropa, 45, 8, 1995. This article is mainly concerned with the period from late 1994 until spring 1996.
9. The development of local self-government in Russia in 1991-93 was extensively discussed in previous Western studies. For an excellent account see H. Wollmann, 'Jelzins Reformpolitik im Dickicht des institutionellen Umbruchs und des Machtkampfes in Rußland', in H. U. Derlien, U. Gerhardt & F. W. Scharpf (eds), Systemrationalität und Partialinteresse. Festschrift für Renate Mayntz (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1994), pp. 329-353 and K. Mildner, 'Lokale Finanzen und kommunale Selbstverwaltung in Rußland', Osteuropa, 45, 8, 1995. This article is mainly concerned with the period from late 1994 until spring 1996.
10. This draft was published in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 October 1994, pp. 4-5 and was signed, among others, by the then Minister of Nationalities, N. Egorov, and the former Minister of Finance, S. Dubinin.
11. For a discussion of these issues see N. Travkin, 'V odnoi upryazhke', Delovoi mir, 7 December 1995, pp. 4-5. Travkin was one of the pioneers of territorial self-organisation as the head of the local administration in Shakhovskii raion near Moscow, where he started a number of market experiments before federal legislation was even adopted. As a deputy of the former Supreme Soviet, he was elected head of its committee on local self-government, but was appointed as minister and member of the Russian government in 1994.
12. For such attempts in the case of St Petersburg and its satellite settlements see the interview by the head of the committee on legislation of the mayor's office, D. Kozak, 'Zakon est'. Kak ego ispolnyat", Sankt-Peterburgskie vedomosti, 11 October 1995, p. 5. However, this is a general problem in most other federal states. In the USA, apart from boundary disputes, water disputes and conflicts over debts are the most commonly reported intra and inter-State conflicts (J. F. Zimmerman, Contemporary American Federalism. The Growth of National Power (Leicester and London, Leicester University Press, 1992), pp. 136-139).
13. For such attempts in the case of St Petersburg and its satellite settlements see the interview by the head of the committee on legislation of the mayor's office, D. Kozak, 'Zakon est'. Kak ego ispolnyat", Sankt-Peterburgskie vedomosti, 11 October 1995, p. 5. However, this is a general problem in most other federal states. In the USA, apart from boundary disputes, water disputes and conflicts over debts are the most commonly reported intra and inter-State conflicts (J. F. Zimmerman, Contemporary American Federalism. The Growth of National Power (Leicester and London, Leicester University Press, 1992), pp. 136-139).
14. The first draft was prepared by the group of deputies headed by I. Murav'ev and included Z. Saetgaliev, L. Oleinik, M. Vasil'ev. Yu. Sokolov, E. Kosterin and V. Kotlyar, while the second was prepared by A. Dolgopolov together with V. Tikhonov, N. Verveiko, V. Talanov and P. Medvedev. In the Russian discussion the drafts were usually referred to as those of Murav'ev and Dolgopolov. These documents were published in Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 6, pp. 17-32.
15. Compared with the original governmental draft, Chernomyrdin made a number of concessions in his speech at this conference, including more autonomy for local budgets, taxes and property and a revival of ethno-cultural self-organisation, although he referred in the latter case to the traditional Russian zemstvo movement (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 21 January 1995. pp. 1-2).
16. Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 7, p. 32. According to Vladimir Gel'man, who was involved in the preparation of new legislation on local self-government in the State Duma, Anatoli Silva, who represented the President's interests in the duma's committee on local self-government, fiercely resisted the discussion and voting on Musav'ev's draft in the duma, forcing ahead the rapid preparation of the 'presidential' draft.
17. The new law on local self-government was adopted by the State Duma on 12 August 1995 and signed by President El'tsin on 28 August 1995. It was published in Rossiiskaya gazeta, 1 September 1995, pp. 4-6.
18. The new governmental programme on regional policy announced in March 1996 included a formal declaration to guarantee 'minimum social standards' all over Russia, but it failed again to explain through which mechanism this was to be achieved (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 April 1996, p. 6).
19. Only a few days before the deadline expired, about 40 provinces had reportedly failed to adopt their legislation on local self-government (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 20 February 1996, p. 1).
20. Kommersant'-daily, 23 January 1996, p. 3.
21. Rossiiskie vesti, 5 December 1995, p. 2.
22. V. Pushkarev, I kak zhe nam zhit' po etim ustavam? (Novosibirsk, 1995), p. 2 (mimeo).
23. Utro Rossii, 28 December 1995, p. 1.
24. The law on local self-government in Primorskii krai was published in Utro Rossii, 31 October 1995, pp. 2-3. For open resistance by local heads of administration to implementing this law in Primorskii krai see Utro Rossii, 17 February 1996, p. 2.
25. The law on local self-government in Primorskii krai was published in Utro Rossii, 31 October 1995, pp. 2-3. For open resistance by local heads of administration to implementing this law in Primorskii krai see Utro Rossii, 17 February 1996, p. 2.
26. For a discussion of authoritarian power in this region and its implications for centre-periphery relations in Russia see P. Kirkow, 'Regional Warlordism in Russia: The Case of Primorskii krai', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 6, 1995, pp. 923-947.
27. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 20 February 1996, p. 2.
28. The list of central legislation to be brought into line with federal law on local self-government was not published, but in a special comment one of the members of the committee on local self-government of the State Duma, Vyacheslav Demin, pointed out that the government had stopped short of granting budgetary autonomy and handing over federal property to the municipalities (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 21 March 1996. p. 4).
29. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 April 1996. p. 6.
30. Rossiiskie vesti, 12 October 1995, p. 1.
31. Sankt-Peterburgskie vedomosti, 11 October 1995, p. 5.
32. Kommersant'-daily, 15 November 1995, p. 2.
33. For Silva's fairly traditional views see Ekonomika i zhizn', 1995, 39, p. 23 and Rossiiskie vesti, 19 September 1995, p. 2.
34. For Silva's fairly traditional views see Ekonomika i zhizn', 1995, 39, p. 23 and Rossiiskie vesti, 19 September 1995, p. 2.
35. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, pp. 1-2.
36. For the governmental decree of its founding congress see Rossiiskaya gazeta, 22 November 1995, p. 1.
37. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, p. 2. In his speech at the first conference on local self-government in February 1995, Chernomyrdin mentioned experiments in 13 cities and five raiony, including the cities of Ryazan', Kostroma, Shlissel'burg, Obninsk and Dzerzhinsk and Pytalovskii raion in Pskovsk oblast' and Skopinsk raion in Ryazan oblast' (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 21 February 1995, p. 2). For a first account on the experiment in Shlissel'burg see S. Yurkova & A. Shirokov, 'Mestnoe samoupravlenie: rynochnyi oblik mestnoi vlasti', Ekonomist, 1996, 1, pp. 85-90.
38. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, p. 2. In his speech at the first conference on local self-government in February 1995, Chernomyrdin mentioned experiments in 13 cities and five raiony, including the cities of Ryazan', Kostroma, Shlissel'burg, Obninsk and Dzerzhinsk and Pytalovskii raion in Pskovsk oblast' and Skopinsk raion in Ryazan oblast' (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 21 February 1995, p. 2). For a first account on the experiment in Shlissel'burg see S. Yurkova & A. Shirokov, 'Mestnoe samoupravlenie: rynochnyi oblik mestnoi vlasti', Ekonomist, 1996, 1, pp. 85-90.
39. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, p. 2. In his speech at the first conference on local self-government in February 1995, Chernomyrdin mentioned experiments in 13 cities and five raiony, including the cities of Ryazan', Kostroma, Shlissel'burg, Obninsk and Dzerzhinsk and Pytalovskii raion in Pskovsk oblast' and Skopinsk raion in Ryazan oblast' (Rossiiskaya gazeta, 21 February 1995, p. 2). For a first account on the experiment in Shlissel'burg see S. Yurkova & A. Shirokov, 'Mestnoe samoupravlenie: rynochnyi oblik mestnoi vlasti', Ekonomist, 1996, 1, pp. 85-90.
40. Delovoi mir, 9 November 1995, p. 1.
41. An extract from this document was published in Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 8, pp. 43-44.
42. Yu. Yarmagaev, 'Bez samoupravleniya net demokratii', Sankt-Peterburgskie vedomosti, 6 February 1996, p. 4.
43. Delovoi mir, 7 December 1995, p. 4.
44. Rossiiskie vesti, 20 September 1995, p. 1.
45. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 January 1996, p. 2. After the adoption of the new Russian Constitution, governors were officially denied of this right, but it was often ignored. At least in one reported case, the Russian Supreme Court challenged the sacking of the Mayor of Uglich town by the Governor of Yaroslavskaya oblast' ('Gosudarstvo i pravo'. No. 2, 1995). This information was provided by Vladimir Gel'man.
46. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 January 1996, p. 2. After the adoption of the new Russian Constitution, governors were officially denied of this right, but it was often ignored. At least in one reported case, the Russian Supreme Court challenged the sacking of the Mayor of Uglich town by the Governor of Yaroslavskaya oblast' ('Gosudarstvo i pravo'. No. 2, 1995). This information was provided by Vladimir Gel'man.
47. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Finansovaya oligarkhiya v Rossii', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996, p. 5. In a case study of the wholesale trade system in Moscow city during the first six months of 1993 Treisman found that the city government partly replaced its previous planning and administrative role by the function of allocation of soft credits. His results showed evidence that personal connections appeared to be the strongest determinant of which enterprises received subsidised and other low interest rate credits. From his findings Treisman concluded that personal connections were becoming more commercialised, monetised and localised, preserving a segmentation of the market into favoured and unfavoured enterprises, which seems to affect their market adaptation (D. Treisman. The Politics of Soft Credit in Post-Soviet Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 6, 1995, pp. 949-976).
48. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Finansovaya oligarkhiya v Rossii', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996, p. 5. In a case study of the wholesale trade system in Moscow city during the first six months of 1993 Treisman found that the city government partly replaced its previous planning and administrative role by the function of allocation of soft credits. His results showed evidence that personal connections appeared to be the strongest determinant of which enterprises received subsidised and other low interest rate credits. From his findings Treisman concluded that personal connections were becoming more commercialised, monetised and localised, preserving a segmentation of the market into favoured and unfavoured enterprises, which seems to affect their market adaptation (D. Treisman. The Politics of Soft Credit in Post-Soviet Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 6, 1995, pp. 949-976).
49. For the conflict between the new mayor of the city of Kstovo in Nizhegorodskaya oblast' and the management of its dominating oil-processing company Nizhegorodorgsintez, see Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 January 1996, p. 2. See also the interviews with the mayor of the small city of Pereslavl'-Zalesski in Delovoi mir, 20 January 1996, p. 2 and the mayor of the closed city of Zelenogorsk in Krasnoyarsk krai in Delovoi mir, 6 February 1996, p. 8.
50. For the conflict between the new mayor of the city of Kstovo in Nizhegorodskaya oblast' and the management of its dominating oil-processing company Nizhegorodorgsintez, see Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 January 1996, p. 2. See also the interviews with the mayor of the small city of Pereslavl'-Zalesski in Delovoi mir, 20 January 1996, p. 2 and the mayor of the closed city of Zelenogorsk in Krasnoyarsk krai in Delovoi mir, 6 February 1996, p. 8.
51. For the conflict between the new mayor of the city of Kstovo in Nizhegorodskaya oblast' and the management of its dominating oil-processing company Nizhegorodorgsintez, see Rossiiskaya gazeta, 17 January 1996, p. 2. See also the interviews with the mayor of the small city of Pereslavl'-Zalesski in Delovoi mir, 20 January 1996, p. 2 and the mayor of the closed city of Zelenogorsk in Krasnoyarsk krai in Delovoi mir, 6 February 1996, p. 8.
52. Kommersant'-daily, 15 November 1995, p. 2.
53. One example of informal local associations is provided by the 'territorial social self-government' as described in a special monograph for the city of Saratov. It claimed the right to the use of municipal property, to initiate social welfare programmes and to control local finances. However, its attempt to get the status of an organisation financed by the budget and its ambition to run (upravlyat') the city question its original intention and are probably a reaction to exclusion from real decision making. It tried to achieve this by setting up an audit commission and a fund for social protection (A. Dzhashitov et al., Territorial'noe obshchestvennoe samoupravlenie, 2nd edn (Saratov, 1996).
54. Rossiiskaya Federarsiya, 1995, 7, p. 32.
55. For a more extensive discussion of this issue see A. Kogut er al., Osnovy mestnogo samoupravleniya v gorodakh Rossii (St Petersburg, 1995).
56. Sankt-Peterburgskie veclomosti, 11 October 1995, p. 5. For earlier proposals for reforming the mayor's office in St Petersburg see V. Shcherbakov, 'Regional'nye aspekty upravleniya (predposylki i praktika mestnogo samoupravleniya)', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1993, 6, pp. 62-68.
57. Sankt-Peterburgskie veclomosti, 11 October 1995, p. 5. For earlier proposals for reforming the mayor's office in St Petersburg see V. Shcherbakov, 'Regional'nye aspekty upravleniya (predposylki i praktika mestnogo samoupravleniya)', Voprosy ekonomiki, 1993, 6, pp. 62-68.
58. Kommersant'-daily, 23 January 1996, p. 3.
59. A. Orlov, 'A nizam - chto ostalos', Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 8, p. 36.
60. V. Koshkin, 'Kaleidoskop platezhei v regionakh', Ekonomika i zhizn', 1996, 1, p. 3.
61. For a more extensive discussion of these issues at the national and regional levels see P. Kirkow, 'Distributional Coalitions, Budgetary Problems and Fiscal Federalism in Russia', Communist Economies & Economic Transformation, 8, 3, 1996, pp. 277-298.
62. Yu. Aleksandrov. 'V teni vetvei vlasti probivayutsya vskhody mestnogo samoupravleniya', Rossiiskie vesti, 28 September 1995, pp. 1-2.
63. For example, Novosibirsk city authorities reported a decrease of the assignment of income tax from 100% in the early 1990s to 75% in 1996 and also cuts in profit tax and VAT assignments. This was balanced by a new 50% property tax assignment as well as revenues from the tax on maintenance of housing and social infrastructure (Finansy v Sibiri, 1996, 3, p. 4). The association of self-governed territories in the city of Saratov received in recent years 5% of local fees to maintain public order, 50% of licensing fees for trade in alcohol and 90% of other retail trade fees. However, total revenues of 5 million rubles in 1993-94 were just enough to pay salaries and to grant 1 million rubles to handicapped children (A. Dzhashitov et al., Territorial'noe ohshchestvennoe⋯, pp. 139-143).
64. For example, Novosibirsk city authorities reported a decrease of the assignment of income tax from 100% in the early 1990s to 75% in 1996 and also cuts in profit tax and VAT assignments. This was balanced by a new 50% property tax assignment as well as revenues from the tax on maintenance of housing and social infrastructure (Finansy v Sibiri, 1996, 3, p. 4). The association of self-governed territories in the city of Saratov received in recent years 5% of local fees to maintain public order, 50% of licensing fees for trade in alcohol and 90% of other retail trade fees. However, total revenues of 5 million rubles in 1993-94 were just enough to pay salaries and to grant 1 million rubles to handicapped children (A. Dzhashitov et al., Territorial'noe ohshchestvennoe⋯, pp. 139-143).
65. For an excellent analysis of problems of local taxes in Russia see Mildner, 'Lokale Finanzen ⋯', pp. 5-7. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, p. 2.
66. For an excellent analysis of problems of local taxes in Russia see Mildner, 'Lokale Finanzen ⋯', pp. 5-7. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 9 November 1995, p. 2.
67. Delovoi mir, 7 December 1995, p. 4.
68. For a more extensive discussion of this issue see G. W. Lapidus & E. W. Walker, 'Nationalism, Regionalism, and Federalism: Center-Periphery Relations in Post-Communist Russia', in G. W. Lapidus (ed.), The New Russia. Troubled Transformation (Boulder/Oxford, Westview Press, 1995), p. 105.
69. Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 8, p. 42.
70. For earlier experiments with these forms in the city of Shlissel'burg see Yurkova & Shirokov, 'Mestnoe samoupravlenie ⋯', pp. 89-90.
71. Finansovye izvestiya, 1 March 1996, p. III.
72. Finansy v Sibiri, 1996, 3, p. 8. This was also confirmed by the mayor of the city of Novosibirsk, V. Tolokonsky, at an interview with this author in September 1995.
73. Ibid., p. 5.
74. A. Orlov, 'A nizam ⋯', p. 37.
75. Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 6, p. 29.
76. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 1 September 1995, p. 4.
77. Rossiiskaya gazera, 9 November 1995, p. 2.
78. Utro Rossii, 31 October 1995, pp. 2-3.
79. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 12 March 1996, p. 5.
80. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 1 September 1995, p. 5.
81. Ekonomika i zhizn', 1995, 39, p. 23.
82. Mildner, 'Lokale Finanzen ⋯', pp. 10 and 16.
83. Delovoi mir, 7 December 1995, p. 4. Berkowitz & Husted found from a survey of retail food markets covering 25 Russian cities in the period between January 1992 and April 1993 that, although local governments, mafia and the Russian transport system appeared to be critical obstacles to the process of market integration in which a proper price system would link city and inter-regional markets, there was some evidence for advanced market integration and that some cities registered gains in their standard of living (D. Berkowitz & S. Husted, Market Integration Against the Odds: Evidence from Russia 's Big Bang (Washington, DC, The National Council for Soviet and East European Research, 1995).
84. Delovoi mir, 7 December 1995, p. 4. Berkowitz & Husted found from a survey of retail food markets covering 25 Russian cities in the period between January 1992 and April 1993 that, although local governments, mafia and the Russian transport system appeared to be critical obstacles to the process of market integration in which a proper price system would link city and inter-regional markets, there was some evidence for advanced market integration and that some cities registered gains in their standard of living (D. Berkowitz & S. Husted, Market Integration Against the Odds: Evidence from Russia 's Big Bang (Washington, DC, The National Council for Soviet and East European Research, 1995).
85. L. Chernyshev, 'S ruk na ruki. Vmeste s dolgami', Rossiiskaya Federatsiya, 1995, 8, p. 40.
86. Ibid., p. 41.
87. Delovoi mir, 9 November 1995, p. 1.