Khomo lia oela: Canteens, brothels and labour migrancy in colonial lesotho, 1900-40

Journal of African History

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 101-122

  Maloka, Tshidiso ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BASOTHO WOMEN; BREWING; DEPRESSION; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; PROSTITUTION;

LESOTHO;

EID: 0031393130     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S002185379600686X     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. 'The cattle are falling': a Sotho reference to the loss of money which men experienced once they visited brothels.
2. P. Bonner, '"Desirable or undesirable Basotho women?" Liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945', in C. Walker (ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (Cape Town, 1990); J. Kimble, '"Runaway wives?" Basotho women, chiefs, and the colonial state, c. 1890-1920', Centre for African Studies seminar paper, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 17 June 1983.
3. P. Bonner, '"Desirable or undesirable Basotho women?" Liquor, prostitution and the migration of Basotho women to the Rand, 1920-1945', in C. Walker (ed.), Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (Cape Town, 1990); J. Kimble, '"Runaway wives?" Basotho women, chiefs, and the colonial state, c. 1890-1920', Centre for African Studies seminar paper, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 17 June 1983.
4. See especially, J. Guy, 'Wage employment of rural Basotho women: a case study', South African Labour Bulletin, VI (1980); E. Gordon, 'An analysis of the impact of labor migration on the lives of women in Lesotho', Journal of Development Studies, XVII (1981); C. Murray, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Johannesburg, 1981); A. D. Spiegel, 'Rural differentiation and the diffusion of migrant labour remittances in Lesotho', in P. Mayer (ed.), Black Villagers in an Industrial Society (Cape Town, 1980).
5. See especially, J. Guy, 'Wage employment of rural Basotho women: a case study', South African Labour Bulletin, VI (1980); E. Gordon, 'An analysis of the impact of labor migration on the lives of women in Lesotho', Journal of Development Studies, XVII (1981); C. Murray, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Johannesburg, 1981); A. D. Spiegel, 'Rural differentiation and the diffusion of migrant labour remittances in Lesotho', in P. Mayer (ed.), Black Villagers in an Industrial Society (Cape Town, 1980).
6. See especially, J. Guy, 'Wage employment of rural Basotho women: a case study', South African Labour Bulletin, VI (1980); E. Gordon, 'An analysis of the impact of labor migration on the lives of women in Lesotho', Journal of Development Studies, XVII (1981); C. Murray, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Johannesburg, 1981); A. D. Spiegel, 'Rural differentiation and the diffusion of migrant labour remittances in Lesotho', in P. Mayer (ed.), Black Villagers in an Industrial Society (Cape Town, 1980).
7. See especially, J. Guy, 'Wage employment of rural Basotho women: a case study', South African Labour Bulletin, VI (1980); E. Gordon, 'An analysis of the impact of labor migration on the lives of women in Lesotho', Journal of Development Studies, XVII (1981); C. Murray, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Johannesburg, 1981); A. D. Spiegel, 'Rural differentiation and the diffusion of migrant labour remittances in Lesotho', in P. Mayer (ed.), Black Villagers in an Industrial Society (Cape Town, 1980).
8. Murray, Families Divided; A. D. Spiegel, 'Polygyny as myth: towards understanding extramarital relations in Lesotho', Afr. Studies, L (1991).
9. Murray, Families Divided; A. D. Spiegel, 'Polygyny as myth: towards understanding extramarital relations in Lesotho', Afr. Studies, L (1991).
10. Spiegel, 'Polygyny as myth', 147.
11. H. E. Mabille, 'The Basutos of Basutoland', Proceedings of the British and South African Association for the Advancement of Science, III (1905), 185.
12. A. Pim, Financial and Economic Position of Basutoland: Report of the Commission Appointed by the Secretary for Dominion Affairs, January 1935, Cmd. 4907, 42. This view was taken to extremes by colonial officials who, as we shall see later, regarded bonyatsi as 'general prostitution' and attributed the spread of beershops and venereal disease to it. This was consistent with the tendency in colonial mentality and discourse to exaggerate Africans' sexual promiscuity.
13. Bohali averaged between ten and twenty cattle in the 1930s. See Murray, Families Divided, 62-87; H. Ashton, The Basuto (London, 1952), 64-73.
14. Bohali averaged between ten and twenty cattle in the 1930s. See Murray, Families Divided, 62-87; H. Ashton, The Basuto (London, 1952), 64-73.
15. Ashton, Basuto, 65.
16. Pim, Financial and Economic Position, 42.
17. Basutoland, Basutoland Census, 1911, 1936, 1946.
18. This structure, made up of chiefs and the Paramount Chief, was established in 1903 to play an advisory role in the British indirect rule system.
19. Lesotho National Archives (LNA), Litaba tsa Lekhotla la Sechaba sa Lesotho (1934), 114-20; (1937), 246-50.
20. Lesotho National Archives (LNA), Litaba tsa Lekhotla la Sechaba sa Lesotho (1934), 114-20; (1937), 246-50.
21. S. van der Horst, Native Labour in South Africa (Cape Town, 1942), 206; Pim, Financial and Economic Position, 195; LNA, Native Recruiting Corporation memorandum on the 'Encouragement of the flow of voluntary natives to the gold mines', 10 July 1928.
22. S. van der Horst, Native Labour in South Africa (Cape Town, 1942), 206; Pim, Financial and Economic Position, 195; LNA, Native Recruiting Corporation memorandum on the 'Encouragement of the flow of voluntary natives to the gold mines', 10 July 1928.
23. S. van der Horst, Native Labour in South Africa (Cape Town, 1942), 206; Pim, Financial and Economic Position, 195; LNA, Native Recruiting Corporation memorandum on the 'Encouragement of the flow of voluntary natives to the gold mines', 10 July 1928.
24. Leselinyana la Lesotho, 5 Feb. 1936.
25. A local chief.
26. H. Tracey, 'Basutoland recording tour: November 19th to December 3rd, 1959', African Music Society Journal, II (1959), 73.
27. Spiegel, 'Polygyny as myth', 147.
28. LNA, Leribe Collection, Box 70. The 'Vagrants and Prostitution' file in this box has the synopsis of court proceedings of the 1930s and 1940s, involving a considerable number of prostitutes.
29. On Basotho migrants finding 'wives' on the Rand, see, for example, Bonner, '"Desirable or undesirable Basotho women?"', 234-41.
30. Litaba, 1934; 1937.
31. Mabille, 'The Basutos', 185.
32. Basutoland Census, 1911, 36-7.
33. Litaba 1934, 212.
34. Basutoland Census, 1936; 1946; Basutoland, Colonial Report - Annual [CAR], 1947.
35. Basutoland Census, 1936; 1946; Basutoland, Colonial Report - Annual [CAR], 1947.
36. There is, however, some debate as to whether this practice should be regarded as marriage or not, as there was no bohali transaction; see B. Potash, Widows in African Societies: Choices and Constraints (California, 1986).
37. Leselinyana, 18 Mar. 1936.
38. Ashton, Basuto, 85.
39. R. P. J. Laydevant, 'Etude sur la famille en Basutoland', Journal de la Société des Africanistes, 1 (1931), 255.
40. Orange Free State Archives (VAB), CSO 2364/06, CO 404, has correspondence between the Basutoland and the Orange Free State authorities regarding the tracing and repatriation of 'absconded' women. See also CAR, 1898-99; 1892-93; Kimble, '"Runaway wives?"'.
41. Orange Free State Archives (VAB), CSO 2364/06, CO 404, has correspondence between the Basutoland and the Orange Free State authorities regarding the tracing and repatriation of 'absconded' women. See also CAR, 1898-99; 1892-93; Kimble, '"Runaway wives?"'.
42. From ho teka, that is, 'to wander about'.
43. Bonner, '"Desirable or undesirable Basotho women?"'; Umteteli wa Bantu, 5 Mar. 1921; 12 Mar. 1921; 10 Dec. 1921; Leselinyana, 22 May 1931.
44. Bonner, '"Desirable or undesirable Basotho women?"'; Umteteli wa Bantu, 5 Mar. 1921; 12 Mar. 1921; 10 Dec. 1921; Leselinyana, 22 May 1931.
45. For a more detailed anthropological and historical study of this beer in southern Africa, see P. A. McAllister, 'Indigenous beer in southern Africa: functions and fluctuations', Afr. Studies, LII (1993).
46. M. Minnie, Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs (London, 1903), 39.
47. Paragraph based on G. Tylden, The Rise of the Basuto (Cape Town, 1950), 191; G. Lagden, Basutos: The Mountaineers, their Country, Being a Narrative of Events Relating to the Tribe From its Formation Early in the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1910) i, 300; and ii, 576; E. Mphatsoe, 'The Blue Cross Association in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, VIII (July-Sept. 1954), and 'The struggle against alcoholic drink in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, XI (Dec. 1957).
48. Paragraph based on G. Tylden, The Rise of the Basuto (Cape Town, 1950), 191; G. Lagden, Basutos: The Mountaineers, their Country, Being a Narrative of Events Relating to the Tribe From its Formation Early in the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1910) i, 300; and ii, 576; E. Mphatsoe, 'The Blue Cross Association in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, VIII (July-Sept. 1954), and 'The struggle against alcoholic drink in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, XI (Dec. 1957).
49. Paragraph based on G. Tylden, The Rise of the Basuto (Cape Town, 1950), 191; G. Lagden, Basutos: The Mountaineers, their Country, Being a Narrative of Events Relating to the Tribe From its Formation Early in the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1910) i, 300; and ii, 576; E. Mphatsoe, 'The Blue Cross Association in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, VIII (July-Sept. 1954), and 'The struggle against alcoholic drink in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, XI (Dec. 1957).
50. Paragraph based on G. Tylden, The Rise of the Basuto (Cape Town, 1950), 191; G. Lagden, Basutos: The Mountaineers, their Country, Being a Narrative of Events Relating to the Tribe From its Formation Early in the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1910) i, 300; and ii, 576; E. Mphatsoe, 'The Blue Cross Association in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, VIII (July-Sept. 1954), and 'The struggle against alcoholic drink in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, XI (Dec. 1957).
51. Paragraph based on G. Tylden, The Rise of the Basuto (Cape Town, 1950), 191; G. Lagden, Basutos: The Mountaineers, their Country, Being a Narrative of Events Relating to the Tribe From its Formation Early in the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1910) i, 300; and ii, 576; E. Mphatsoe, 'The Blue Cross Association in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, VIII (July-Sept. 1954), and 'The struggle against alcoholic drink in Basutoland', Basutoland Witness, XI (Dec. 1957).
52. Paragraph based on Leselinyana, 28 Nov. 1912; 30 Nov. 1911; LNA, S3/21/4/4, Assistant Commissioner (AC) (Leribe) to Resident Commissioner (RC), 24 Oct. 1911; LNA, S3/5/11/6, 'Memorandum on Drink Traffic in Basutoland' to High Commissioner (HC), 14 July 1915.
53. LNA, S3/21/4/4, AC (Leribe) to Government Secretary (GS), 17 Aug. 1914.
54. Ibid., AC (Leribe) to GS, 19 Jan. 1916.
55. Ibid., petition to AC, 6 Jan. 1916; a follow-up petition to the AC, 8 Feb. 1916.
56. Ibid., AC (Leribe) to GS, 29 Apr. 1916.
57. Central Archives Depot (SAB), JUS 184, 5/33/13, Petition to Minister of Justice, 29 Feb. 1912.
58. Ibid., Secretary for Justice to Imperial Secretary (Imp. Sec.), 17 June 1913; Magistrate (Ficksburg) to AC (Leribe), 1 Aug. 1913.
59. LNA, S3/5/11/6, Minister of Justice to Imp. Sec., 25 Nov. 1915.
60. Ibid.
61. LNA S3/5/11/6, 'Memorandum on Drink Traffic in Basutoland' to HC, 14 July 1915.
62. Ibid., RC to HC, 8 May 1916.
63. Ibid., AC (Leribe) to GS, 7 Apr. 1916; AC (Leribe) to GS, 3 May 1916; AC (Leribe) to GS, 4 Mar. 1916.
64. Leselinyana, 14 May 1915; 11 June 1915.
65. Reference to this newspaper is in LNA, S3/5/11/6, 'Memorandum on Drink Traffic in Basutoland' to HC, 14 July 1915.
66. Ibid.
67. SAB, JUS 184, 5/33/13, Secretary for Justice to Magistrate (Ficksburg), 23 Feb. 1917.
68. LNA, S3/5/11/6, RC to HC, 8 May 1916.
69. LNA S3/21/4/4, 'Basuto Beer Always!', 16 Feb. 1918.
70. LNA, S3/21/4/3, BNC petition to HC, 11 Sept. 1918; PEMS petition, 30 Sept. 1918; BCC resolution, 30 Jan. 1919.
71. Litaba (1918), 90-122; LNA, S3/21/4/4, GS' circular to ACs, 30 May 1919.
72. LNA, S3/21/4/4, BCC to GS, 27 Mar. 1919.
73. Ibid., Macfarlane to AC (Leribe), 12 Aug. 1920.
74. Basutoland, Basutoland Proclamations and Notices (1922).
75. LNA S3/5/11/6, Act. RC to HC, 30 July 1924.
76. This organization was formed in 1908 to represent the interest of the Basotho élite.
77. Litaba (1924), 247-61.
78. LNA, QN 3/1/13, AC (Qachas Nek) to GS, 6 Sept. 1926; LNA, S3/21/4/4, Inspector Basutoland Mounted Police (BMP) to AC (Leribe), 8 Sept. 1926.
79. LNA, S3/5/18/10, AC (Maseru) Quarterly Report ended Sept. 1927.
80. This newspaper was targeted at the white communities in the Orange Free State borderline towns and Basutoland.
81. LNA, S3/5/18/10, AC (Maseru) to RC, 21 May 1928.
82. Ibid.
83. Litaba (1928), 39-55; Proclamations and Notices (1928); LNA, S3/5/18/10, AC (Maseru) to RC, 21 May 1928.
84. Litaba (1928), 39-55; Proclamations and Notices (1928); LNA, S3/5/18/10, AC (Maseru) to RC, 21 May 1928.
85. T. Verdier, 'L'alcoholisme au Lessouto', Journal des Missions Evangeliques, 1 (1930), 290-5; Mphatsoe, 'Blue Cross'.
86. T. Verdier, 'L'alcoholisme au Lessouto', Journal des Missions Evangeliques, 1 (1930), 290-5; Mphatsoe, 'Blue Cross'.
87. Ashton, Basuto, 95.
88. A Sesotho derogatory reference to migrants, derived from the English word 'squad'.
89. Mochochonono, 3 Jan. 1931; 6 Jan. 1932; 10 Feb. 1932; 24 Aug. 1932; 20 Aug. 1930; 13 May 1931; 27 May 1931; LNA, Leribe Collection, Box 70, George to AC (Leribe), 18 Mar. 1939.
90. LNA, Leribe Collection, Box 70, AME petition to AC (Leribe), 10 Apr. 1940.
91. Mochochonono, 1 Aug. 1936; 22 Mar. 1933; Leselinyana, 28 Oct. 1936.
92. Mochochonono, 1 Aug. 1936; 22 Mar. 1933; Leselinyana, 28 Oct. 1936.
93. See, for example, H. Bradford, '"We women will show them": beer protests in the Natal countryside, 1929', in J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds.), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Pietermaritzburg, 1992).
94. Verdier, 'L'alcoholisme', 15.
95. I am drawing these generalizations from the Leribe Collection, Box 70, 'Prostitutes and Vagrants' file. On famous prostitutes, see D. B. Coplan,. 'Fictions that save: migrants' performance and Basotho national culture', Cultural Anthropology, VI (1991), 180-3.
96. Tracey, 'Basutoland recording tour', 73.
97. Interview with Willy 'Ramosoeu' Hawkins, born 1902.
98. Interview with Phomolo Matsabisa, born 1914.
99. Basotho women were used to carrying heavy loads on their heads, from their experience in carrying bowls of water from the river and loads from the fields. In the 1920s, in mountainous areas inaccessible to wheeled transport, women raised income by carrying fragile and liquid items from trading stores. The charged up to 3 shillings per 25 kg. See, especially, R. U. Sayce, 'Ethno-geographical essay on Basutoland', Geographical Teacher, XII (1924), 285.
100. For the NRC lorries and 'resthouse', see LNA, S3/5/18/3, District Superintendent (NRC) to RC, 12 May 1930; S8/2/2/28, RC to Paramount Chief, 9 July 1932; CAR, 1930.
101. Interview with Solomon Mosunyane, born 1913.
102. Interview with Hawkins. 84 LNA, S3/3/1/3, AC to GS, 21 Oct. 1927.
103. Interview with Hawkins.
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid.
106. I am grateful to David Coplan for allowing me to use these lifela from his forthcoming collection of these song-poems.
107. I have not been able to establish who this person was, but there is no doubt that he was one of the local authorities.
108. This addition by Coplan is debatable. Mainyatso, as Makeka indicates in his other sefela, was married to Sakease.
109. Interview with Hawkins.
110. Ashton, Basuto, 282-316; H. Dieterlen, 'La medicine et les medicins au Lessouto', Les Cahiers Missionaires, XVII (1930), especially 24.
111. Ashton, Basuto, 282-316; H. Dieterlen, 'La medicine et les medicins au Lessouto', Les Cahiers Missionaires, XVII (1930), especially 24.