Seed heteromorphism and the life cycle of plants: A literature review

Preslia

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 129-159

  Mandák, Bohumil ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Amphicarpy; Bet hedging; Competition, predation; Dispersal; Dormancy; Evolution; Germination; Heterocarpy; Heterodiaspory; Heterospermy; Seed bank

Indexed keywords

AMPHICARPY; HETERODIASPORY; LIFE CYCLE; SEED MORPHOLOGY;

EID: 0031392247     PISSN: 00327786     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Baar H. (1912): Zur Anatomie und Keimungsphysiologie heteromorpher Samen von Chenopodium album und Atriplex nitens. - Sitzber. Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. - Naturw. 72: 21-40.
2. Baker H. C. (1972); Seed weight in relation to environmental conditions in California. - Ecology 53: 997-1010.
3. Baker G. A. et O'Dowd D. J. (1982): Effect of parent plant density on the production of achene types in the annual Hypochoeris glabra. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 70: 201-215.
4. Baskin C. C. et Baskin J. M. (1988): Germination ecophysiology of herbaceous plant species in a temperate region. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 75: 286-305.
5. Baskin J. M. et Baskin C. C. (1976): Germination dimorphism in Heterotheca subaxillaris var. subaxillaris. - Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Bronx, 103: 201-206.
6. Baskin J. M. et Baskin C. C. (1985): The annual dormancy cycle in buried weed seeds: a continuum. - BioScience, Washington, 35: 492-498.
7. Baskin J. M. et Baskin C. C. (1989): Physiology of dormancy and germination in relation to seed bank ecology. - In: Leek M. A., Parker V. T. et Simpson R. L. [red.], Ecology of soil seed banks, p. 53-56, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego.
8. Beadle N. C. W. (1952): Studies on halophytes. I. The germination of the seeds and establishment of the seedlings of five species of Atriplex in Australia. - Ecology 33: 49-62.
9. Begon M., Harper J. L. et Townsend C. R. (1986): Ecology, individuals, populations and communities. - Blackwell Sci, Publ., Oxford.
10. Berger A. (1965): Seed dimorphism and germination behaviour in Salicornia patula. - Vegetatio, Dordrecht, 61: 137-143.
11. Bewley J. D. et Black M. (1982): Physiology and biochemistry of seeds in relation to germination. - Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg et New York.
12. Bewley J. D. et Black M. (1985): Seeds. Physiology of development and germination. - Plenum Press, New York et London.
13. Black J. N. (1958): Competition between plants of different initial seed sizes in swards of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) with particular references to leaf area and the light microclimate. - Austral. J. Agric. Res., Melbourne, 9: 299-318.
14. Boucaud J. et Ungar I. A. (1973): The role of hormones in controlling the mechanically induced dormancy of Suaeda spp. - Physiol. Plant., Kobehavn et Lund, 29: 97-102.
15. Boucaud J. et Ungar I.A. (1976): Hormonal control of germination under saline conditions of three halophytic taxa in the genus Suaeda. - Physiol. Plant., Kobehavn et Lund, 37: 143-148.
16. Breckle S.-W. (1995): How do halophytes overcome salinity? - In: Khan M. A. et Ungar I. A. [red.], Biology of salt tolerant plants, p. 199-213, Dept. of Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan.
17. Bruhl J. J. (1994): Amphicarpy in the Cyperaceae, with novel variation in the wetland sedge Eleocharis caespitossisima Baker. - Austral. J. Bot., Melbourne, 42: 441-448.
18. Burke A. (1995): Geigeria alata in the Namib desert: seed heteromorphism in an extremly arid environment. - J. Veget. Sci., Uppsala, 6: 473-478.
19. Campbell C. S., Quinn J. A., Cheplick G. P. et Bell T. J. (1983): Cleistogamy in grasses. - Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst., Palo Alto, 14: 411-441.
20. Cheplick G. P. (1983): Differences between plants arising from aerial and subterranean seeds in the amphicarpic annual Cardamine chenopodifolia (Cruciferae). - Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Bronx, 110: 442-448.
21. Cheplick G. P. (1987): The ecology of amphicarpic plants. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 2: 97-101.
22. Cheplick G. P (1988): Influence of environment and population origin on survivorship and reproduction in reciprocal transplants of amphicarpic peanutgrass (Amphicarpum purshii). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 75: 1048-1056.
23. Cheplick G. P. (1992): Sibling competition in plants. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 80: 567-575.
24. Cheplick G. P. (1993): Sibling competition is a consequence of restricted dispersal in an annual cleistogamous grass. - Ecology 74: 2161-2164.
25. Cheplick G. P. et Clay K. (1989): Convergent evolution of cleistogamy and seed heteromorphism in two perennial grasses. - Evolutionary Trends in Plants 3: 127-136.
26. Cheplick G. P. el Quinn J. A. (1982): Amphicarpum purshii and the "pessimistic strategy" in amphicarpic annuals with subterranean fruit. - Oecologia, Berlin, 52: 327-332.
27. Cheplick G. P. et Quinn J. A. (1983): The shift in aerial/subterranean fruit ratio in Amphicarpum purshii: causes and significance. - Oecologia, Berlin, 57: 374-379.
28. Cheplick G. P. et Quinn J. A. (1987): The role of seed depth, litter, and fire on the seedling establishment of amphicarpic peanutgrass (Amphicarpum purshii). - Oecologia, Berlin, 73: 459-464.
29. Cheplick G. P. et Quinn J. A. (1988): Quantitative variation of life history traits in amphicarpic peanutgrass (Amphicarpum purshii) and its evolutionary significance. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 75: 123-131.
30. Cook R. E. (1980): Germination and size dependent mortality in Viola blanda. - Oecologia, Berlin. 47: 115-117.
31. Cook S. A., Atsatt P. R. et Simon C. A. (1971): Doves and dove weed: multiple defenses against avian predation. - BioScience, Washington, 21: 277-281.
32. Dalby D. H. (1962): Seed dispersal in Salicornia pusilla. - Nature, London, 199: 197-198.
33. Datta S. C., Evenari M. et Gutterman Y. (1970): The heteroblasty of Aegilops ovata L. - Israel J. Bot., Jerusalem, 19: 463-483.
34. Datta S. C., Evenari M. et Gutterman Y. (1972): The influences of the origin of the mother plant on yield and germination of their caryopses in Aegilops ovata L. - Planta, Berlin et Heidelberg, 105: 155-164.
35. de Clavijo E. R. (1995): The ecological significance of fruit heteromorphism in the amphicarpic species Catananche lutea (Asteraceae). - Intern. J. Plant Sci., Chicago, 156: 824-833.
36. Drake D. R. et Ungar I. A. (1989): Effect of salinity, nitrogen and population density on the survival, growth and reproduction of Atriplex triangularis (Chenopodiaceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 76: 1125-1135.
37. Ellison A. M. (1987): Effect of seed dimorphism on the density-dependent dynamics of experimental populations of Atriplex triangularis (Chenopodiaceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 74: 1280-1288.
38. Ellner S. P. (1985): ESS germination strategies in randomly varying environments. I. Logistic type models. - Theor. Popul. Biol. 28: 50-79.
39. Ellner S. P. et Schmida A. (1981): Why are adaptation for long-range seed dispersal rare in desert plants? - Oecologia, Berlin, 51: 133-144.
40. Ellner S. P. et Schmida A. (1984): Seed dispersal in relation to habitats in the genus Picris (Compositae) in Mediterranean and arid regions. - Israel J. Bot., Jerusalem, 33: 25-39.
41. Ellstrand N. C., Lord E. M. et Eckard K. J. (1984): The inflorescence as a metapopulation of flowers: position-dependent differences in function and form in the cleistogamous species Collomia grandiflora Dougl. ex Lindl. (Polemoniaceae). - Bot. Gaz., Chicago, 145: 329-333.
42. Evenari M., Kadouri A. et Gutterman Y. (1977): Eco-physiological investigations on the amphicarpy of Emex spinosa (L.) Campd. - Flora, Jena, 166: 223-238.
43. Fenner M. (1992): Seeds - The ecology of regeneration in plant communities. - C.A.B International. Wallingford.
44. Flint S. D. et Palmblad I. G. (1978): Germination dimorphism and developmental flexibility in the ruderal weed Hetemtheca grand/flora. - Oecologia, Berlin, 36: 33-43.
45. Flowers T. J., Hajibagheri M. A. et Clipson N. J. W. (1986): Halophytes. - Quart. Rev. Biol., Baltimore. 61: 313-337.
46. Forsyth C. et Brown N. A. C. (1982): Germination of the dimorphic fruits of Bidens pilosa L. - New Phytol., London et Oxford, 90: 151-164.
47. Freitas H. et Breckle S.-W. (1993): Accumulation of nitrate in bladder hairs of Atriplex species. - Plant Physiol. Biochem. 31: 887-892.
48. Freitas H. et Breckle S.-W. (1994): Importance of bladder hairs for seedling of some Atriplex species. - Mésogée 53: 47-54.
49. Grime J. P. et al. (1981): A comparative study of germination characteristics in a local flora. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 69: 1017-1059.
50. Gutterman Y. (1972): Delayed seed dispersal and rapid germination as survival mechanism of the desert plant Blepharis persica (Burm.) Kuntze. - Oecologia, Berlin, 10: 145-149.
51. Gutterman Y. (1978): Seed coat permeability as a function of photoperiodical tratment of the mother plants during seed maturation in the desert annual plant Trigonella arabica Del. - J. Arid Environm., 1: 141-144.
52. Gutterman Y. (1990): Do the germination mechanism differ in plants originating in desert receiving winter or summer rain? - Israel J. Bot., Jerusalem, 39: 355-372.
53. Gutterman Y. (1992): Maternal effects on seeds during development. - In: Fenner M. [red.], Seeds - The ecology of regeneration in plant communities, p. 27-59, C.A.B International, Wallingford.
54. Gutterman Y. (1994a): Long-term seed position influences on seed germinability of the desert annual, Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L. - Israel J. Plant Sci. 42: 197-205.
55. Gutterman Y. (1994b): Seed dispersal and germination strategies of Spergularia diandra compared with some other desert annual plants inhabiting the Negev desert of Israel. - Israel J. Plant. Sci. 42: 261-274.
56. Gutterman Y. (1994c): Strategies of seed dispersal and germination in plants inhabiting desert. - Bot. Rev., New York, 60: 373-425.
57. Gutterman Y. et Ginott S. (1994): The long-term protected "seed bank" in the dry inflorescents, the mechanism of achenes (seeds) dispersal by rain (ombrohydrochory) and the germination of the annual desert plant Asteriscus pygmaeus. - J. Arid Environm. 26: 149-163.
58. Haines R. W. et Lye K. A. (1977): Studies in African Cyperaceae, XV. Amphicarpy and spikelet structure in Trianoptiles solitaria. - Bot. Notiser, Lund, 130: 235-240.
59. Harper J. L. (1977): Population biology of plants. - Academic Press, London, New York et San Francisco.
60. Harper J. L., Lovell P. H. et Moore K. G. (1970): The shapes and sizes of seeds. - Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst., Palo Alto, 1: 327-356.
61. Hilhorst H. W. M. (1995): A critical update on seed dormancy. I. Primary dormancy. - Seed Sci. Res. 5: 61-73.
62. Khan M. A. et Ungar I. A. (1984): The effect of salinity and temperature on the germination of polymorphic seeds and growth of Atriplex triangularis Willd. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 71: 481-489.
63. Khan M. A. et Ungar I. A. (1985): The role of hormones in regulating the germination of polymorphic seeds and early seedling growth of Atriplex triangularis under saline conditions. - Physiol. Plant., Kobehavn et Lund, 63: 109-113.
64. Khan M. A., Weber D. J. et Hess W. M. (1985): Elemental distribution in seeds of the halophytes Salicornia pacifica var. utahensis and Atriplex canescens. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 72: 1672-1675.
65. Kigel J. (1992): Diaspore heteromorphism and germination in populations of the ephemeral Hedypnois rhagadioloides (L.) F. W. Schmidt (Asteraceae) inhabiting a geographic range of increasing aridity. - Acta Oecol. 13: 45-53.
66. Kigel J., Gilby A. et Negbi M. (1979): Seed germination in Amaranthus retroflexus L. as affected by the photoperiod and age during flower induction of the parent plant. - J. Exp. Bot., London et Oxford, 30: 997-1002.
67. Koller D. (1957): Germination mechanism in some desert seeds. I. Atriplex dimorphostegia Kar. et Kir. - Ecology 38: 1-13.
68. Koller D. et Roth N. (1964): Studies on the ecological significance of amphicarpy in Gymnarrhena micrantha (Compositae), - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 5: 26-35.
69. Kopecky K. et LhotskáM. (1990): On the spreading of Atriplex sagittata. (K Šíření druhu Atriplex sagittata.) - Preslia, Praha, 62: 337-349. [In Czech with German summary].
70. Levin S. D., Cohen D. et Hastings A. (1984): Dispersal strategies in patchy environment. - Theor. Popul. Biol. 26: 165-191.
71. Levina R. E. (1967): The aspects of investigation of heterocarpy. - Bot. Zhurn., 52: 3-12. [In Russian with English summary].
72. Lloyd D. G. (1984): Variation strategies of plants in heterogenous environments. - Biol. J. Linn. Soc., London, 21: 357-385.
73. Lord E. M. (1981): Cleistogamy: a tool for the study of floral morphogenesis, function and evolution. - Bot. Rev., New York, 47: 421-449.
74. Macdonald D. W. et Smith H. (1990): Dispersal, dispersion and conservation in the agricultural ecosystem. - In: Bunce R. G. H. et Howard D. C. [red.], Species dispersal in agricultural habitats, p. 18-64, Belhaven Press, London, New York.
75. Mattatia J. (1976): The amphicarpic species Lathyrus ciliolatus. - Bot. Notiser, Lund, 129: 437-444.
76. Mattatia J. (1977): Amphicarpy and variability in Pisum fulvum. - Bot. Notiser, Lund, 130: 27-34.
77. Maun M. A. and Payne A. M. (1989): Fruit and seed polymorphism and its relation to seedling growth in genus Cakile. - Canad. J. Bot., Ottawa, 67: 2743-2750.
78. Maurya A. N. et Ambasht R. S. (1973): Significance of seed dimorphism in Alisicarpus monilifer D.C. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 61: 213-217.
79. McDonough W. T. (1975): Germination polymorphism in Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal. - Northwest Sci., Cheney, 49: 190-200.
80. McEvoy P. B. (1984): Dormancy and dispersal in dimorphic achenes of tansy ragworth, Senecio jacobea L. (Compositae). - Oecologia, Berlin, 61: 160-168.
81. McEvoy P. B. et Cox C. S. (1987): Wind dispersal distance in dimorphic achenes of ragwort, Senecio jacobea. - Ecology 68: 2006-2015.
82. McNamara J. et Quinn J. A. (1977): Resource allocation and reproduction in population of Amphicarpum purshii (Gramineae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 64: 17-23.
83. McWilliams E. L., Landers R. Q. et Mahlstede J. P. (1968): Variation in seed weight and germination in populations of Amaranthus retroflexus L. - Ecology 49: 290-296.
84. Melzack R. N. et Watts D. (1982): Variation in seed weight, germination and seedling vigour in the yew (Taxus baccata L.) in England. - J. Biogeogr. Oxford, 9: 55-63.
85. Millington A. J., Burvill G. H. el Marsh B. (1951): Soil salinity investigations. Salt tolerance, germination and growth test under controlled salinity conditions. - J. Agric. West. Australia, Perth, 28: 198-210.
86. Momose K. et Inoue T. (1993): Pollination and factors limiting fruit set of chasmogamous flowers of an amphicarpic annual, Polygonum thunbergii (Polygonaceae). - Res. Popul. Ecol. 35: 79-93.
87. Negbi M. et Tamari B, (1963): Germination of chlorophyllous and achlorophyllous seeds of Salsola volkensii and Aellenia autranii. - Israel J. Bot., Jerusalem, 12: 124-135.
88. Osmond C. B., Björkman O. et Anderson D. J. (1980): Physiological processes in plant ecology - towards a synthesis with Atriplex. - Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg et New York.
89. Payne A. M. et Maun M. A. (1981): Dispersal and floating ability of dimorphic fruit segments of Cakile edentula var. lacustris. - Canad. J. Bot., Ottawa, 59: 2595-2602.
90. Pengelly B. C. et Eagles D. A. (1993): Diversity and forage potential of some Macroptilium species. - Genet. Resources Commun. 20: 1-14.
91. Philipupillai J. et Ungar I. A. (1984): The effect of seed dimorphism on the germination and survival of Salicornia europaea L. populations. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 71: 542-549.
92. Pourrat Y. et Jacques R. (1975): The influence of photoperiodic conditions received by mother plant on morphological and physiological characteristics of Chenopodium polyspermum L. seeds. - Pl. Sci. Lett. 4: 273-279.
93. Rivers W. G. et Weber D. J. (1971). The influence of salinity and temperature on seed germination in Salicornia bigelovii. - Physiol. Plant., Kobehavn et Lund, 24: 73-75.
94. Roberts E. H. (1972): Viability of seeds. - Syracuse University Press.
95. Ross M. A. et Harper J. L. (1972): Occupation of biological space during seedling establishment. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 60: 77-88.
96. Schemske D. W. (1978): Evolution of reproductive characteristics in Impatiens (Balsaminaceae): the significance of cleistogamy and chasmogamy. - Ecology 59: 569-613.
97. Schimpf D. J. (1977): Seed weight of Amaranthus retroflexus in relation to moisture and length of growing season. - Ecology 58: 450-453.
98. Schmida A. et Ellner S. P. (1983): Seed dispersal on pastoral grazers in open Mediterranean chaparral, Israel. - Israel J. Bot., Jerusalem, 32: 147-159.
99. Schnee B. K. et Waller D. M. (1986): Reproductive behaviour of Amphicarpea bracteata (Leguminosae), an amphicarpic annual. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 73: 376-386.
100. Schoen D. J. (1984): Cleistogamy in Microlaena polynoda (Gramineae): an examination of some model prediction. - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 71: 711-719.
101. Schoen D. J. et Lloyd D. G. (1984): The selection of cleistogamy and heteromorphic diaspores. - Biol. J. Linn. Soc., London, 23: 303-322.
102. Silvertown J. W. (1984): Phenotypic variety in seed germination behavior: the ontogeny and evolution of somatic polymorphism in seeds. - Amer. Natur., Tempe, 124: 1-16.
103. Silvertown J. W. et Lovett-Doust J. L. (1993): Introduction to plant population biology. - Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford.
104. Sorenson A. E. (1978): Somatic polymorphism and seed dispersal. - Nature, London, 276: 174-176.
105. Stanton M. L. (1984): Developmental and genetics sources of seed weight variation in Raphanus raphanistrum (Brassicaceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 71: 1090-1098.
106. Stebbins G. L. (1957): Self-fertilization and population variability in the higher plants. - Amer. Natur., Tempe, 91: 337-354.
107. Stebbins G. L. (1974): Flowering plants: evolution above the species level. - Belknap, Cambridge, MA.
108. Sterk A. A. et Dijkhuizen L. (1972):The relation between the genetics determination and the ecological significance of seedwing in Spergularia media and S. marina. - Acta Bot. Neerland., Amsterdam, 21: 481-490.
109. Tanowitz B. D., Salopek P. F. et Mahall B. E (1987): Differential germination of ray and disc achenes in Hemizonia increscens (Asteraceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 74: 303-312.
110. Thompson K. et Grime J. P. (1979): Seasonal variation in the seed banks of herbaceous species in ten contrasting habitats. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 67: 893-921.
111. Tindale M. D. (1986): Taxonomic notes on three Australian and Norfolk island species of Glycine Willd. (Fabaceae:Phaseolae) including the choice of a neotype for G. clandestina Wendl. - Brunonia, Melbourne, 9: 179-191.
112. Tindale M. D. et Craven L. A. (1993): Glycine pindanica (Fabaceae, Phaseolae), a new species from West Kimberley, Western Australia. - Austral. Syst. Bot. 6: 371-376.
113. Trapp E. J. (1988): Dispersal of heteromorphic seeds in Amphicarpea bracteata (Fabaceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 75: 1535-1539.
114. Uchiyama Y. (1981): Studies on germination of saltbushes: 1. The relationship between temperature and germination of Atriplex nummularia Lindel. - Japan. J. Trop. Agric., Tokyo, 25: 62-67.
115. Ungar I. A. (1962): Influence of salinity on seed germination in succulent halophytes. - Ecology 43: 763-764.
116. Ungar I. A. (1967): Influence of salinity and temperature on seed germination in succulent halophytes. - Ohio J. Sci., Columbus, 67: 120-123.
117. Ungar I. A. (1977): Salinity, temperature and growth regulator effect on seed germination of Salicornia europae. - Aquat. Bot., Amsterdam, 3: 329-335.
118. Ungar I. A. (1979): Seed dimorphism in Salicornia europaea L. - Bot. Gaz., Chicago, 140: 102-108.
119. Ungar I. A. (1984): Alleviation of seed dormancy in Spergularia marina. - Bot. Gaz., Chicago, 145: 33-36.
120. Ungar I. A. (1987): Population ecology of halophyte seeds. - Bot. Rev., New York, 53: 301-334.
121. Ungar I. A. et Binet P. (1975): Factors influencing seed dormancy in Spergularia media (L.) C. Presl. - Aquat. Bot., Amsterdam, 1: 45-55.
122. van der Pilj (1982): Principles of dispersal in higher plants. - Springer Verlag, New York.
123. Venable D. L. (1985a): Ecology of achene dimorphism in Heterotheca latifolia. III Consequences of varied water availability. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 73: 757-763.
124. Venable D. L. (1985b): The evolutionary ecology of seed heteromorphism. - Amer. Natur., Tempe, 126: 577-595.
125. Venable D. L. (1987): The ecology of seed heteromorphism in Heterosperma pinnatum in Central Mexico. - Ecology 68: 65-76.
126. Venable D. L. et Brown J. S. (1988): The selective interactions of dispersal, dormancy, and seed size as adaptions for reducing risk in variable environments. - Amer. Natur., Tempe, 131: 360-384.
127. Venable D. L. et Brown J. S. (1993): The population-dynamic functions of seed dispersal. - Vegetatio, Dordrecht, 107-108: 31-55.
128. Venable D. L., Búrquez A., Corral G., Morales E. et Espinosa F. (1987): The ecology of seed heteromorphism in Heterosperma pinnatum in Central Mexico. - Ecology 68: 65-76.
129. Venable D. L., Dyreson E. et Morales E. (1995): Population dynamics consequences and evolution of seed traits of Heterosperma pinnatum (Asteraceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 82: 410-420.
130. Venable D. L. et Lawlor L. (1980): Delayed germination and dispersal in desert annuals: escape in space and time. - Oecologia, Berlin, 46: 272-282.
131. Venable D. L. et Levin D. A. (1985a): Ecology of achene dimorphism in Heterotheca latifolia I. Achene structure, germination and dispersal. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 73: 133-145.
132. Venable D. L. et Levin D. A. (1985b): Ecology of achene dimorphism in Heterotheca latifolia II. Demographic variation within populations. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 73: 743-755.
133. Vleeshouwers L. M., Bouwmeester H. J. et Karssen C. M. (1995): Redefining seed dormancy: an attempt to integrate physiology and ecology. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 83: 1031-1037.
134. Voytenko V. F. (1968): The forms of heterocarpy in Brassicaceae and the evaluation of their evolutionary significance. - Bot. Zhurn. 53: 1428-1439. [In Russian with English summary].
135. Waller D. M. (1979): The relative cost of self- and cross-fertilized seeds in Impatiens capensis (Balsaminaceae). - Amer. J. Bot., Lancaster, 66: 313-320.
136. Waller D. M. (1980): Environmental determinants of outcrossing in Impatiens capensis (Balsaminaceae). - Evolution 34: 747-761.
137. Weiss P. W. (1980): Germination, reproduction, and interference in the amphicarpic annual Emex spinosa (L.) Campd. - Oecologia, Berlin, 45: 244-251.
138. Werner P. A. et Platt W. J. (1976): Ecological relationships of coocuring goldenrods (Solidago: Compositae). - Amer. Natur., Tempe, 110: 959-971.
139. Wertis B. A. et Ungar I. A. (1986): Seed demography and seedling survival in a population of Atriplex triangularis Willd. - Amer. Midl. Natur. 116: 152-162.
140. Williams J. T. et Harper J. L. (1965): Seed polymorphism and germination I. The influence of nitrates and low temperatures on the germination of Chenopodium album. - Weed Res., Oxford et Edinburgh, 5: 141-150.
141. Williams M. C. (1960): Biochemical analyses, germination and production of black and brown seeds of Halogeton glumeratus. - Weeds 8: 452-461.
142. Wulff R. D. (1986): Seed size variation in Desmodium paniculatum. II. Effect on seedling growth and physiological performance. - J. Ecol., Oxford, 74: 99-114.
143. Wurzburger J. et Koller D. (1976): Differential effects of parenthal phototermal environment on development of dormancy in caryopses of Aegilops kotschyi. - J. Exp. Biol., London, 27: 43-48.
144. Yokoishi T. et Tanimoto S. (1994): Seed germination of the halophyte Suaeda japonica under salt stress. - J. Plant. Res. 107: 385-388.
145. Zimmerman J. K. et Weis M. (1983): Fruit size variation and its effects on germination and seedling growth in Xanthium strumarium. - Canad. J. Bot., Ottawa, 61: 2309-2315.
146. Zohary M. (1950): Evolutionary trends in the fruiting head of Compositae. - Evolution 4: 103-109.
147. Zohary M. (1962): Plant life of Palestine, Israel and Jordan. - Ronald, New York.
148. Zohary M. et Fahn A. (1950): On the heterocarpy of Aethionema. - Palest. J. Bot., Jerusalem, 5: 28-30.