The ukrainian left: In transition to social democracy or still in thrall to the USSR?

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 49, Issue 7, 1997, Pages 1293-1316

  Wilson, Andrew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; PARTY POLITICS; POLITICAL CHANGE; POST-COMMUNISM;

UKRAINE; USSR;

EID: 0031391735     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139708412500     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. On Communist successor parties in East-Central Europe, see Alison Mahr & John Nagle, 'Resurrection of the successor parties and democratization in East-Central Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 28, 4, 1995, pp. 393-409;
2. Michael Waller, Bruno Coppieters & Kris Deschauwer, Social Democracy in a Post-Communist Europe (Ilford, Frank Cass, 1994);
3. Richard Rose, 'Ex-Communists in Post-Communist Societies', The Political Quarterly, 67, 1, 1996, pp. 14-25;
4. and Michael Waller, 'Adaptation of the Former Communist Parties of East-Central Europe: A Case of Social-democratization?', Party Politics, 1, 4, 1995, pp. 473-490.
5. See John T. Ishiyama, 'Communist Parties in Transition. Structures, Leaders and Processes of Democratization in Eastern Europe', Comparative Politics, 27, 2, 1995, pp. 147-166.
6. Beverly Crawford & Arend Lijphart, 'Explaining Political and Economic Change in Post-Communist Eastern Europe: Old Legacies, New Institutions, Hegemonic Norms and International Pressures', Comparative Political Studies, 28, 2, July 1995, pp. 171-199, at p. 172.
7. Holos Ukraïny, 30 October 1991.
8. James Mace, 'Socialist Models of Ukrainian Statehood', Political Thought (Kiev), 1996, 1, pp. 200-212.
9. Prohrama Sotsialistychnoï partiï Ukraïny (Kiev, Party publication, 1995), pp. 5 and 4. On the true extent of Bolshevik support in Ukraine in 1917-20, see, inter alia, I. L. Hoshulyak, 'Pro prychyny porazky Tsentral'noï Rady', Ukraïns'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal, 1994, 1, pp. 31-44.
10. Prohrama Sotsialistychnoï partiï Ukraïny (Kiev, Party publication, 1995), pp. 5 and 4. On the true extent of Bolshevik support in Ukraine in 1917-20, see, inter alia, I. L. Hoshulyak, 'Pro prychyny porazky Tsentral'noï Rady', Ukraïns'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal, 1994, 1, pp. 31-44.
11. Petro Symonenko (leader of the Ukrainian Communists after 1993), ' "Natsional'na ideya": mify i real'nist', Holos Ukraïny, 21 March 1996.
12. 8 Viktor Drozd, 'Prezident, ili Zametki o nesostoyavsheisya "revolyutsii" ', Tovarysh, 1994, 13 (March).
13. On the intellectual history of the Ukrainian left, see Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Edmonton, CIUS, 1987), pp. 91-141, 203-298 and 417-436.
14. Janusz Radziejowski, The Communist Party of Western Ukraine (Edmonton, CIUS, 1983).
15. Heorhii Kas'yanov, Ukraïns'ka intelihentsiya na rubezhi XIX-XX stolit': sotsial'no-polit-ychnyi portret (Kiev, Lybid', 1993), pp. 69-96.
16. James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1983).
17. On Ukraino-phobes in the CPU, see T. O. Komarenko, ' "Teoriya borot'by dvokh kul'tur" i shlyakhy rozv"yazannya natsional'noho pytannya v Ukraïni (berezen'-kviten' 1923 r.)', Problemy istoriï Ukraïny: fakty, sudzhennya, poshuky, 1994, 3, pp. 84-90.
18. Author's interview with Rostyslav Chapyuk, deputy head of the Agrarian Party, 23 November 1995.
19. After 1993 the press of the revived CPU was full of traditional Soviet historiography, particularly on 1917 and World War II. See, for example, E. V. Krasnyakov, 'Istoriya - eto ne tol'ko pamyat'...', Komunist, 1995, 50 (December); 'Kommunisticheskaya partiya - organizator i vdokhnovitel' velikoi pobedy', Kommnist, 1996, 29 (October); and the hagiography of Lenin, who adorned the paper's masthead, in Komunist, 1996, 2 and 3 (January).
20. After 1993 the press of the revived CPU was full of traditional Soviet historiography, particularly on 1917 and World War II. See, for example, E. V. Krasnyakov, 'Istoriya - eto ne tol'ko pamyat'...', Komunist, 1995, 50 (December); 'Kommunisticheskaya partiya - organizator i vdokhnovitel' velikoi pobedy', Kommnist, 1996, 29 (October); and the hagiography of Lenin, who adorned the paper's masthead, in Komunist, 1996, 2 and 3 (January).
21. After 1993 the press of the revived CPU was full of traditional Soviet historiography, particularly on 1917 and World War II. See, for example, E. V. Krasnyakov, 'Istoriya - eto ne tol'ko pamyat'...', Komunist, 1995, 50 (December); 'Kommunisticheskaya partiya - organizator i vdokhnovitel' velikoi pobedy', Kommnist, 1996, 29 (October); and the hagiography of Lenin, who adorned the paper's masthead, in Komunist, 1996, 2 and 3 (January).
22. This article divides Ukraine into seven main historical and ethno-linguistic regions: Crimea, the east and south had relatively weak historical connections to the Ukrainian heartlands of the centre and west before falling under Russian rule in the 18th century; central Ukraine is divided into the region east of the Dnieper (Left Bank) that came under Russian control after 1654, and the western or Right Bank, that was only absorbed into the Russian empire in 1793-95 (Kiev, the capital, is treated separately); west Ukraine is itself divided into four sub-regions, Chernivtsi (Bukovyna), Transcarpathia, Galicia and Volhynia, only one of which (Volhynia from 1795 to 1917) was ever under Russian rule before World War II. Russophones predominate in Crimea, the east and the south; Ukrainophones in the west and centre.
23. Although Volhynia lay outside the Russian sphere of influence before 1795 and again in 1917-40, the local population is Orthodox rather than Uniate Catholic. Conservative Russophile sentiment was a powerful force in the region before 1917, as was rural socialism between the wars. See Don C. Rawson, Russian Rightists and the Revolution of 1905 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 92-95.
24. Dominique Arel, 'The Parliamentary Blocs in the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet: Who and What Do They Represent?', Journal of Soviet Nationalities, 1, 4, 1990-1991, pp. 108-154.
25. Ishiyama, p. 159.
26. See chapter 4, 'National Communism', in my Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997).
27. As Moroz records in his memoir collection of speeches and documents, citing a letter to Hurenko in April 1991 and a note to the Ukrainian Central Committee dated 'summer 1991'; Oleksandr Moroz, Kudy idemo? (Kiev, Postup, 1993), pp. 111 and 115.
28. Materialy XXVIII z"izdu KPU, 13-14 hrudnya 1990 roku (druhyi etap) (Kiev, Ukraïna, 1991).
29. Holos Ukraïny, 28 August 1991.
30. On the whole the new party was supported by figures of the second rank. More senior figures, such as Hurenko and the poet and former Gorbachev adviser Borys Oliinyk, kept their distance. See the interview with Hurenko in Vechirnii Kyïv, 12 February 1992.
31. Author's interview with Volodymyr Kyzyma, 6 February 1996. Kyzyma drew up the original party programme.
32. Radyans'ka Ukraïna, 5 October 1991. See also the interview with Moroz in Vechirnii Kyïv, 19 September 1991. For the appeal, see Demokratychna Ukraïna, 19 October 1991.
33. Radyans'ka Ukraïna, 5 October 1991. See also the interview with Moroz in Vechirnii Kyïv, 19 September 1991. For the appeal, see Demokratychna Ukraïna, 19 October 1991.
34. Radyans'ka Ukraïna, 5 October 1991. See also the interview with Moroz in Vechirnii Kyïv, 19 September 1991. For the appeal, see Demokratychna Ukraïna, 19 October 1991.
35. Speech of Adam Martynyuk (head of the organisation bureau of the SPU and former first secretary of the L'viv city CPU) to the Veterans' Union of Ukraine on 6 April 1992, in documents collected by the Narodna Rada (then the national-democratic opposition group in parliament), 'Ye taka partiya', April-May 1992, pp. 1-14, at pp. 2-3.
36. Tiny social democratic groups in fact appeared as early as 1988, but the Social Democratic Party of Ukraine contrived to split in two at its founding congress in May 1990; Volodymyr Lytvyn, 'Suchasni sotsial-demokratychni partiï Ukraïny', Polityka i chas, 1991, 8, pp. 44-49.
37. Luganskaya pravda, 28 November 1991. On the left in Luhans'k, see Yurii Yurov, 'Dva polyusy Luhans'koho politykumu (istoryko-politolohichnyi narys)', Heneza, 1994, 1, pp. 198-204.
38. Luganskaya pravda, 28 November 1991. On the left in Luhans'k, see Yurii Yurov, 'Dva polyusy Luhans'koho politykumu (istoryko-politolohichnyi narys)', Heneza, 1994, 1, pp. 198-204.
39. Material? ustanovchoho z"izdu Sotsialistychnoi partiï Ukraïny (Kiev, Party document, 1991); Oleksa Haran', 'From Drahomanov to Moroz?', News from Ukraine, 1991, 45; and Rostyslav Khotyn, 'Reanimatsiya natsional-komunizmu', Slovo, 1991, 21.
40. Material? ustanovchoho z"izdu Sotsialistychnoi partiï Ukraïny (Kiev, Party document, 1991); Oleksa Haran', 'From Drahomanov to Moroz?', News from Ukraine, 1991, 45; and Rostyslav Khotyn, 'Reanimatsiya natsional-komunizmu', Slovo, 1991, 21.
41. Material? ustanovchoho z"izdu Sotsialistychnoi partiï Ukraïny (Kiev, Party document, 1991); Oleksa Haran', 'From Drahomanov to Moroz?', News from Ukraine, 1991, 45; and Rostyslav Khotyn, 'Reanimatsiya natsional-komunizmu', Slovo, 1991, 21.
42. Author's interview with Kyzyma.
43. Volodymyr Lytvyn, 'Sotsialistychna partiya Ukraïny', Polityka i chas, 1991, 17-18, pp. 80-92, at p. 83.
44. Sotsialist Ukraïny (Dnipropetrovs'k), 16 December 1995.
45. Tovarysh, 1996, 8 (February).
46. 'Zayava ustanovchoho z"ïzdu SPU pro antykonstytutsiinist' zaborony Kompartiï Ukraïny', Materialy ustanovchoho z"ïzdu SPU, pp. 19-20, at p. 19.
47. Martynyuk, p. 2.
48. 'Statut SPU', Materialy ustanovchoho z"izdu SPU, pp. 6-13, at pp. 11, 7 and 8.
49. 'Rezolyutsiya ustanovchoho z"ïzdu SPU pro vsenarodnyi referendum i vybory Prezydenta Ukrainy', Materialy ..., pp. 21-22.
50. 'Postanova ustanovchoho z"ïzdu SPU pro politychnyi moment i naiblyzhchi zavdannya partiï', Materialy ..., pp. 16-18, at p. 17.
51. See the interview with Moroz in Holos Ukraïny, 26 October 1991.
52. See for example the documents from the party's June 1992 'theoretical' conference published in Tovarysh, 1992, 5-7 (July). For the party's second congress, see 'Dokumenty II s"ezda SPU', Tovarysh, 1992, 13 (December); and Programma i ustav Sotsialisticheskoi partii Ukrainy (prinyaty ll-m s"ezdom SPU, 28-29 noyabrya 1992 goda) (Kiev, Party brochure 1993).
53. See for example the documents from the party's June 1992 'theoretical' conference published in Tovarysh, 1992, 5-7 (July). For the party's second congress, see 'Dokumenty II s"ezda SPU', Tovarysh, 1992, 13 (December); and Programma i ustav Sotsialisticheskoi partii Ukrainy (prinyaty ll-m s"ezdom SPU, 28-29 noyabrya 1992 goda) (Kiev, Party brochure 1993).
54. See for example the documents from the party's June 1992 'theoretical' conference published in Tovarysh, 1992, 5-7 (July). For the party's second congress, see 'Dokumenty II s"ezda SPU', Tovarysh, 1992, 13 (December); and Programma i ustav Sotsialisticheskoi partii Ukrainy (prinyaty ll-m s"ezdom SPU, 28-29 noyabrya 1992 goda) (Kiev, Party brochure 1993).
55. See the articles by Moroz in Holos Ukraïny, 2 April and 24 June 1992.
56. 'Predvybornaya platforma SPU', Tovarysh, 1994, 6 (February).
57. Author's interview with leading Socialist deputy Serhii Kiyashko, 9 February 1996. At the party's third conference in February 1996 membership was 29370; Tovarysh, 1996, 8 (February).
58. Moroz's election programme. 'Vil'na, demokratychna, protsvitayucha Ukraïna', was published in Tovarysh, 1994, 24 (June).
59. Selyans'ka is derived from selo, meaning 'village'.
60. Holos Ukraïny, 29 January and 14 February 1992.
61. Sil's'ki visti, 8 June and 2 October 1990; Uryadovyi kur"yer, 1992, 31 (July).
62. Sil's'ki visti, 8 June and 2 October 1990; Uryadovyi kur"yer, 1992, 31 (July).
63. As of April 1996 there were only 34 800 private farms in Ukraine, tilling only 1.8% of the land; Nash chas, 19 April 1996.
64. Serhii Bilokin' et al., Khto ye khto v ukrains'kii politytsi (Kiev, Tovarystvo Petra Mohyly, 1993), p. 221. In 1990-94 deputies could belong to up to two factions, so many 'Agrarian' deputies were also active elsewhere.
65. Author's interviews with Chapyuk and Oleksii Chernyavs'kyi, SeIPU deputy from Sumy, 23 November 1995.
66. 'Peredvyborcha platforma Selyans'koï partiï Ukraïny (proekt)', Materialy l z"ïzdu SelPU (Kiev, Party document, 1993), pp. 9-13, at pp. 9 and 10; 'Meta i zavdannya partiï', Prohrama i statut SelPU. Priinyata Ustanovchoho konferentsiyeyu SelPU 25 sichnya 1992 roku v m. Khersoni (Kherson, Party document, 1992), pp. 4-8, at p. 4.
67. 'Peredvyborcha platforma Selyans'koï partiï Ukraïny (proekt)', Materialy l z"ïzdu SelPU (Kiev, Party document, 1993), pp. 9-13, at pp. 9 and 10; 'Meta i zavdannya partiï', Prohrama i statut SelPU. Priinyata Ustanovchoho konferentsiyeyu SelPU 25 sichnya 1992 roku v m. Khersoni (Kherson, Party document, 1992), pp. 4-8, at p. 4.
68. Author's calculations from information provided by the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, Kiev, and in Holos Ukraïny, 12 July 1994. Moroz was now formally non-party.
69. 'Peredvyborna platforma SelPU - Lystivka (proekt)', and 'Peredvyborcha platforma SelPU (proekt)', Materialy I z"ïzdu SelPU (1993), pp. 15, 10 and 11; the German term was used in the original.
70. Ibid., pp. 10, 11 and 15. See also the common declaration of the SPU, CPU and SelPU on agrarian policy published in Tovarysh, 1995, 51 (December).
71. Ibid., pp. 10, 11 and 15. See also the common declaration of the SPU, CPU and SelPU on agrarian policy published in Tovarysh, 1995, 51 (December).
72. Holos Ukraïny, 12 July 1994; Vseukrainskie vedomosti, 22 October 1994.
73. Holos Ukraïny, 12 July 1994; Vseukrainskie vedomosti, 22 October 1994.
74. 'Postanova plenumu TsK Kompartii Ukraïny', in the collection of documents edited by Stanislav Hurenko et al., Kommunisticheskaya partiya Ukrainy: khronika zapreta (Donets'k, Interbuk, 1992), pp. 50-51, at p. 51 (the full protocol of the plenum is on pp. 38-50); author's interview with Yevhen Marmazov, second CPU secretary, 10 February 1996.
75. Vechirnii Kyïv, 14 July 1992; Tovarysh, 1992, 4 (June).
76. Vechirnii Kyïv, 14 July 1992; Tovarysh, 1992, 4 (June).
77. For a detailed study of the Communist Party in Russia, see Joan Barth Urban and Valerii D. Solovei, 'Russia's communists at the Crossroads' (Boulder, Westview. 1997).
78. Holos Ukraïny, 18 May 1993.
79. Donetskii kryazh, 25 June-1 July 1993. See also the debate between Serhii Pravdenko and Oleksandr Kotsyuba, 'Komunizm: real'nist' chy utopiya?', Holos Ukraïny, 30 April 1993. Information on the revival of the CPU is derived from Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya. Dokumenty i materials vtorogo etapa Vseukrainskoi konferentsii kommunistov i s"ezd KPU (Kherson, Party document, 1993).
80. Donetskii kryazh, 25 June-1 July 1993. See also the debate between Serhii Pravdenko and Oleksandr Kotsyuba, 'Komunizm: real'nist' chy utopiya?', Holos Ukraïny, 30 April 1993. Information on the revival of the CPU is derived from Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya. Dokumenty i materials vtorogo etapa Vseukrainskoi konferentsii kommunistov i s"ezd KPU (Kherson, Party document, 1993).
81. Donetskii kryazh, 25 June-1 July 1993. See also the debate between Serhii Pravdenko and Oleksandr Kotsyuba, 'Komunizm: real'nist' chy utopiya?', Holos Ukraïny, 30 April 1993. Information on the revival of the CPU is derived from Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya. Dokumenty i materials vtorogo etapa Vseukrainskoi konferentsii kommunistov i s"ezd KPU (Kherson, Party document, 1993).
82. The party in Luhans'k called for 'the restoration of the USSR, [albeit] with guarantees of the sovereignty of Ukraine and each republic', and a 'campaign to recognise the illegality of the Belovezhskaya agreement as a first step towards the reunion of the peoples of Ukraine and Russia'; 'Predvybornaya platforma Luganskoi oblastnoi organizatsii Kompartii Ukrainy', Vybor, 1994, 16, The Kharkiv CPU's election appeal, 'Za sotsializm, sovetskuyu vlast', za soyuz narodov!', used similar language.
83. 'Ustav KPU', Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya ..., pp. 43-58, at p. 43; 'O pozitsii KPU v otnoshenii Soyuza kommunisticheskikh partii - SKP-KPSS', ibid., pp. 72-73; and 'Zadachi kommunistov Ukrainy v nyneshnei politicheskoi situatsii', ibid., p. 31.
84. 'Ustav KPU', Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya ..., pp. 43-58, at p. 43; 'O pozitsii KPU v otnoshenii Soyuza kommunisticheskikh partii - SKP-KPSS', ibid., pp. 72-73; and 'Zadachi kommunistov Ukrainy v nyneshnei politicheskoi situatsii', ibid., p. 31.
85. 'Ustav KPU', Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya ..., pp. 43-58, at p. 43; 'O pozitsii KPU v otnoshenii Soyuza kommunisticheskikh partii - SKP-KPSS', ibid., pp. 72-73; and 'Zadachi kommunistov Ukrainy v nyneshnei politicheskoi situatsii', ibid., p. 31.
86. Author's interview with Kyzyma.
87. 'Prohrama KPU', Komunist, 1995, 12 (March), pp. 4-5. See also the CPU's attack on Ukraine's market reform programme introduced in October 1994; Komunist, 1994, 29 (October).
88. 'Prohrama KPU', Komunist, 1995, 12 (March), pp. 4-5. See also the CPU's attack on Ukraine's market reform programme introduced in October 1994; Komunist, 1994, 29 (October).
89. Symonenko's speech to the 1993 congress, 'Zadachi kommunistov Ukrainy v nyneshnei politicheskoi situatsii', Partiya Kommunistov vozrozhdaetsya ..., pp. 11-33, p. 12.
90. Ibid., pp. 13 and 23; 'Programmnoe zayavlenie s"ezda KPU', ibid., pp. 59-71, at p. 59.
91. Ibid., pp. 13 and 23; 'Programmnoe zayavlenie s"ezda KPU', ibid., pp. 59-71, at p. 59.
92. Petro Symonenko & Heorhii Kryuchkov, 'Ne mozhna nekhtuvaty volyu narodu. Chomu komunisty ne mozhut' pidtrymaty novyi proekt Konstytutsiï?', Holos Ukraïny, 26 December 1995. See also A. Yushchik, 'Partiya i Konstitutsiya', Tovarysh, 1995, 49 and 51 (December), 1996, 2 (January) and 5 (February). The draft constitution for a 'Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic' unveiled by the left in March 1996 envisaged the abolition of the presidency, the supremacy of national and local soviets, the adoption of both Russian and Ukrainian as state languages and the return of the state (Ukrainian SSR) symbols of the Soviet era, but only received the support of 207 deputies; Kievskie vedomosti, 26 March 1996; Tovarvsh, 1996, 14 (April).
93. Petro Symonenko & Heorhii Kryuchkov, 'Ne mozhna nekhtuvaty volyu narodu. Chomu komunisty ne mozhut' pidtrymaty novyi proekt Konstytutsiï?', Holos Ukraïny, 26 December 1995. See also A. Yushchik, 'Partiya i Konstitutsiya', Tovarysh, 1995, 49 and 51 (December), 1996, 2 (January) and 5 (February). The draft constitution for a 'Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic' unveiled by the left in March 1996 envisaged the abolition of the presidency, the supremacy of national and local soviets, the adoption of both Russian and Ukrainian as state languages and the return of the state (Ukrainian SSR) symbols of the Soviet era, but only received the support of 207 deputies; Kievskie vedomosti, 26 March 1996; Tovarvsh, 1996, 14 (April).
94. Petro Symonenko & Heorhii Kryuchkov, 'Ne mozhna nekhtuvaty volyu narodu. Chomu komunisty ne mozhut' pidtrymaty novyi proekt Konstytutsiï?', Holos Ukraïny, 26 December 1995. See also A. Yushchik, 'Partiya i Konstitutsiya', Tovarysh, 1995, 49 and 51 (December), 1996, 2 (January) and 5 (February). The draft constitution for a 'Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic' unveiled by the left in March 1996 envisaged the abolition of the presidency, the supremacy of national and local soviets, the adoption of both Russian and Ukrainian as state languages and the return of the state (Ukrainian SSR) symbols of the Soviet era, but only received the support of 207 deputies; Kievskie vedomosti, 26 March 1996; Tovarvsh, 1996, 14 (April).
95. Petro Symonenko & Heorhii Kryuchkov, 'Ne mozhna nekhtuvaty volyu narodu. Chomu komunisty ne mozhut' pidtrymaty novyi proekt Konstytutsiï?', Holos Ukraïny, 26 December 1995. See also A. Yushchik, 'Partiya i Konstitutsiya', Tovarysh, 1995, 49 and 51 (December), 1996, 2 (January) and 5 (February). The draft constitution for a 'Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic' unveiled by the left in March 1996 envisaged the abolition of the presidency, the supremacy of national and local soviets, the adoption of both Russian and Ukrainian as state languages and the return of the state (Ukrainian SSR) symbols of the Soviet era, but only received the support of 207 deputies; Kievskie vedomosti, 26 March 1996; Tovarvsh, 1996, 14 (April).
96. 'Za sotsial'nuyu spravedlivost' i spasenie dukhovnosti, za real'noe narodovlastie i dostoinuyu cheloveka zhizn'. Platforma KPU na vyborakh v Verkhovnyi Sovet Ukrainy', Komunist, 1994, (February); 'Prohrama KPU', Komunist, 1995, 12 (March), pp. 4-5. For general reports on the second CPU congress in March 1995, see Komunist, 1995, 11 (March).
97. 'Za sotsial'nuyu spravedlivost' i spasenie dukhovnosti, za real'noe narodovlastie i dostoinuyu cheloveka zhizn'. Platforma KPU na vyborakh v Verkhovnyi Sovet Ukrainy', Komunist, 1994, (February); 'Prohrama KPU', Komunist, 1995, 12 (March), pp. 4-5. For general reports on the second CPU congress in March 1995, see Komunist, 1995, 11 (March).
98. 'Za sotsial'nuyu spravedlivost' i spasenie dukhovnosti, za real'noe narodovlastie i dostoinuyu cheloveka zhizn'. Platforma KPU na vyborakh v Verkhovnyi Sovet Ukrainy', Komunist, 1994, (February); 'Prohrama KPU', Komunist, 1995, 12 (March), pp. 4-5. For general reports on the second CPU congress in March 1995, see Komunist, 1995, 11 (March).
99. 69 A.G. Mel'nikov, 'Obnovlennomu soyuzu sovetskikh narodov byt'!', Komunist, 1995, 52 (December). The CPU even resisted the call by the CPRF to rename the group as some kind of broader and blander 'Communist International'.
100. Komunist, 1995, 49 (December). See also the commemorations of the fifth anniversary of the 1991 referendum in Kommunist Donbassa, 1996, 2 (April).
101. Komunist, 1995, 49 (December). See also the commemorations of the fifth anniversary of the 1991 referendum in Kommunist Donbassa, 1996, 2 (April).
102. Komunist, 1996, 6 (February). The June 1995 Constitutional Agreement placed a year's moratorium on referenda, but the Communists ignored it (as they had voted against), and claimed to have collected 2.3 million of the necessary 3 million signatures by March 1996. Nationalist parties countered by trying to organise a referendum to ban the CPU.
103. Author's interview with Marmazov.
104. Ibid.
105. 'Telegrama Tsentral'nomu Komitetu Kommunisticheskoi partii Rossiiskoi Federatsii', Komunist, 1995, 51 (December).
106. Tat'yana Mel'nichuk, 'Kto i dlya chego sozdal "Soyuz"?', Vseukrainskie vedomosti, 12 October 1995.
107. 'Nepovaha do svoho narodu. Zayava deputats'koï hrupy "Derzhavnist" Verkhovnoï Rady Ukraïny', Literaturna Ukraïna, 19 October 1995.
108. On the Russophone backlash against what were perceived as 'Ukrainianisation' policies under Kravchuk see Dominique Arel, 'Ukraine: The Temptation of the Nationalizing State', in Vladimir Tismaneanu (ed.), Political Culture and Civil Society in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (New York, M. E. Sharpe, 1995), pp. 157-188.
109. The CPU's equal strength in the two halves of central Ukraine (Left and Right Bank) is probably better explained by rural and small-town patronage networks than by ethno-linguistic factors (the Left Bank is more Russophone).
110. As note 52 above. Information about deputies' ethnicity was only available for those elected in spring 1994. The author had no exact information about deputies' language use, although Yevhen Marmazov confirmed that most party meetings were in Russian (author's interview).
111. Information supplied by CPU Secretariat, as of June 1995.
112. Author's interview with Marmazov.
113. Donetskii kryazh, 23 January 1993.
114. Komunist, 1995, 51 (December), p. 1.
115. On the second congress of the Veterans' Union in February 1996, see Holos Ukraïny, 1 March 1996. The Union claimed over 13 million members (5.5 million war veterans, 7.3 million pensioners and 600 000 former members of the Ukrainian armed forces).
116. See the Union's journal Rabochii klass, 1996, 1 and 2, and the article by Bondarchuk, Komunist, 1995, 50 (December), on the demonstrations (supposedly in 270 towns throughout Ukraine) organised by the Union in December 1995.
117. See the Union's journal Rabochii klass, 1996, 1 and 2, and the article by Bondarchuk, Komunist, 1995, 50 (December), on the demonstrations (supposedly in 270 towns throughout Ukraine) organised by the Union in December 1995.
118. Author's interview with Kyzyma.
119. Vechirnii Kyïv, 16 June 1992; Holos Ukraïny, 16 and 17 February 1993; Donetskii kryazh, 26 February 1993; Bol'shevik: Obshchestvenno-politicheskaya gazeta kommunistov-bol'shevikov, 1994, 14.
120. Vechirnii Kyïv, 16 June 1992; Holos Ukraïny, 16 and 17 February 1993; Donetskii kryazh, 26 February 1993; Bol'shevik: Obshchestvenno-politicheskaya gazeta kommunistov-bol'shevikov, 1994, 14.
121. Vechirnii Kyïv, 16 June 1992; Holos Ukraïny, 16 and 17 February 1993; Donetskii kryazh, 26 February 1993; Bol'shevik: Obshchestvenno-politicheskaya gazeta kommunistov-bol'shevikov, 1994, 14.
122. Vechirnii Kyïv, 16 June 1992; Holos Ukraïny, 16 and 17 February 1993; Donetskii kryazh, 26 February 1993; Bol'shevik: Obshchestvenno-politicheskaya gazeta kommunistov-bol'shevikov, 1994, 14.
123. Sil's'ki visti, 6 January 1993. Having played a role in the campaign to re-establish the CPU in 1992-93, Solomatin's supporters were largely kept out of the new party, which they then criticised as too moderate (sic).
124. See note 28 above. A Ukrainian branch of the All-Union Party of Communists met in Luhans'k in June 1992; Vechirnii Kyïv, 16 June 1992.
125. Robitnycha hazeta, 30 June 1993. In the Radyans'kyi district of Kiev, Nataliya Vitrenko of the SPU fought Volodymyr Martynyuk of the CPU, resulting in the loss of the seat to the Rukh candidate Myroslav Horbatyuk (Vitrenko was subsequently elected in a repeat election). In Pechers'kyi district the second round was a straight run-off between Oleksandr Bozhko, head of the Kiev SPU, and Valentyn Tryzna for the CPU, but neither could obtain the necessary 50% majority. The fourth SPU congress in April 1994 was marked by some bitter criticism of the CPU for its failure to coordinate election tactics.
126. The election law required a '50% plus one' turnout for elections to be valid, and that a candidate receive '50% plus one' of the votes cast.
127. Nevertheless, the new constitution, which enshrined the right to private property and downgraded the powers of local soviets, was a significant setback for the CPV.
128. The left therefore campaigned for a mixed list system, as used in Russia in 1993 and 1995, to be adopted for the 1998 elections, as they thought it would help exaggerate their comparative lead over the parties of the right and centre in terms of organisation and geographical reach, and make better use of their support in Right Bank and western Ukraine (author's interview with Marmazov).
129. 'On the left in Volyn', see Vladimir Danilyuk, 'Est' li budushchee u levykh Volyni?', Kievskie vedomosti, 2 March 1996.
130. The Communist Party of Crimea (CPC) won 290 seats, their nearest rival, the centrist Party of Economic Revival of Crimea, a mere 37; UNIAN, 30 June 1995.
131. Source: Author's calculations, as Table 4.
132. Oleksandr Moroz, 'Vybory: mizh mynulym i maibutnim' (speech to the 1994 SPU congress), Vybir (Kiev, Postup, 1994), pp. 143-150, at p. 146.
133. Interview with Kyzyma, Tovarysh, 1995, 46 (November); Oleksandr Moroz, 'Rik mynuly ... Rik pryideshnii!', Tovarysh, 1995, 52 (December); and 'Pro stratehiyu i taktyku SPU na suchasnomu etapi', Tovarysh, 1996, 8 (February), p. 4. Moroz was also courting Yevhen Marchuk, prime minister until May 1996.
134. Interview with Kyzyma, Tovarysh, 1995, 46 (November); Oleksandr Moroz, 'Rik mynuly ... Rik pryideshnii!', Tovarysh, 1995, 52 (December); and 'Pro stratehiyu i taktyku SPU na suchasnomu etapi', Tovarysh, 1996, 8 (February), p. 4. Moroz was also courting Yevhen Marchuk, prime minister until May 1996.
135. Interview with Kyzyma, Tovarysh, 1995, 46 (November); Oleksandr Moroz, 'Rik mynuly ... Rik pryideshnii!', Tovarysh, 1995, 52 (December); and 'Pro stratehiyu i taktyku SPU na suchasnomu etapi', Tovarysh, 1996, 8 (February), p. 4. Moroz was also courting Yevhen Marchuk, prime minister until May 1996.
136. Author's interview with Kyzyma.
137. Ibid.
138. Leaders of the CPU complained about Moroz's underhand tactics; claiming that 'he was afraid to make a move [to the right] in public, as [if he did so] he would lose most of his [party's] members to the CPU' (sic); author's interview with Marmazov.
139. Tovarysh, 1995, 51 and 52 (December). Kyzyma claimed that 'only a handful' spoke in their support (author's interview). On the other hand, many rank-arid-file Socialists sympathised with the rebels; see the report on the party in Odesa in Daily-express, 7 March 1996.
140. From the party's journal, Bat'kivshchyna, 1 May 1996, p. 3. See also Zerkalo nedeli, 27 April 1996. Vitrenko's projected model for the new party was the French socialist 'think-tank' CERES. In practice, her welfarest populism served to constrain the GPUs' drift to the centre.
141. Tovarysh, 1996, 8 and 9 (February).
142. Author's interview with Kyzyma.
143. The Congress grouped socialist and social democratic parties from Russia (the Socialist Party of the Working People), Armenia, Georgia, Spain (the United Left), Kazakhstan, Moldova, Serbia, Tajikistan and (from October 1995) Belarus and Romania. The French PCF and German PDS had observer status. Significantly, amongst the founding principles of the Congress were both 'internationalism' and 'patriotism', defined as Move for the fatherland, respect for national traditions and preparedness to apply all one's strength to [promote] the prosperity and peaceful existence of the people'; 'Deklaratsiya Evraziiskogo Sotsialisticheskogo Kongressa', document supplied to the author by Serhii Kiyashko. See also the article by Kyzyma, 'Proekt vo vneshnepoliticheskom deyatel'nosti SPU', Tovarysh, 1996, 6 (February).
144. 'Ispolkomu Sotsialisticheskogo Internatsionala', letter dated 7 June 1995 from Kiyashko's private files. According to Kyzyma, who after 1994 was head of the SPU's international department, many members of the party's Political Council still possessed 'Soviet-era stereotypes' about the Socialist International (author's interview).
145. Author's interviews with Chapyuk and Chernyavs'kyi. The authoritarian leadership style of Serhii Dovhan' was also a factor.
146. The 'Reformists' only managed to form a faction by attracting four independents and one defector from the SPU, after a certain amount of prompting by the Kuchma administration.
147. Author's calculations from 'Spysok deputats'kykh hrup i fraktsii u Verkhovnii Radi Ukraïny za stanom na 1 lystopada 1995 roku', document supplied by the Ukrainian parliament, pp. 6-7.
148. Author's calculations from information provided in Mykola Tomenko et al., Verkhovna Roda Ukraïny: paradyhmy i paradoksy (Kiev, Ukrains'ka perspektyva, 1995), issue 2, pp. 47-52.
149. Author's interview with Chapyuk. See also his article 'Zbankrutuye selo - zahyne derzhava', in Holos Ukraïny, 2 November 1995.
150. See the point made by Rose that 'the larger [the successor party] the broader and more heterogeneous the coalition of values and interests that it must represent', (Rose, 'Ex-Communists ...', p. 14.
151. The vote gave the first indication of a possible incipient regional split in the CPU (although some Communists claimed their votes had been 'falsified'). Amongst Communists representing Right Bank constituencies three were against and four in favour, four abstained or did not vote: five from the Left Bank were against and two in favour; 26 from the east were against (24 of whom were from the Donbas), 12 in favour (mainly from Kharkiv and Zaporizhzhya), three abstained or did not vote; in Crimea and the south the figures were four against, four in favour and 12 abstaining or not voting (several Communists were absent); author's calculations from Komunist, 1996, 28 (July). The party showed greater solidarity when eighty deputies initially refused to take the oath of loyalty to the new constitution.
152. Segodnya, 21 September 1996.
153. The best guide to Oliinyk's views is his memoir, Dva roky v Kremli (Kiev, sil's'ki visti, 1992).
154. Author's private information, obtained from oblast' councils. Some seats were vacant (and the CPU in Luhans'k had lost some members), so numbers do not tally exactly with Table 4.
155. Author's interview with Marmazov.
156. Valerii Khmel'ko, 'Referendum: khto buv "za" i khto "proty"', Palitolohichni chytannya, 1992, 1, pp. 40-52; and 'U svidomosti ukraïntsiv perevazhaye syndrom utrymans'koi psykholohiï', Demoz, 1995, 5, pp. 23-24; Arthur H. Miller, William Reisinger & Vicki L. Hesli, 'Understanding Political Change in Post-Soviet Societies: A Further Commentary on Finifter and Mickiewicz', American Political Science Review, 90, 1, March 1996, pp. 153-166.
157. Valerii Khmel'ko, 'Referendum: khto buv "za" i khto "proty"', Palitolohichni chytannya, 1992, 1, pp. 40-52; and 'U svidomosti ukraïntsiv perevazhaye syndrom utrymans'koi psykholohiï', Demoz, 1995, 5, pp. 23-24; Arthur H. Miller, William Reisinger & Vicki L. Hesli, 'Understanding Political Change in Post-Soviet Societies: A Further Commentary on Finifter and Mickiewicz', American Political Science Review, 90, 1, March 1996, pp. 153-166.
158. Valerii Khmel'ko, 'Referendum: khto buv "za" i khto "proty"', Palitolohichni chytannya, 1992, 1, pp. 40-52; and 'U svidomosti ukraïntsiv perevazhaye syndrom utrymans'koi psykholohiï', Demoz, 1995, 5, pp. 23-24; Arthur H. Miller, William Reisinger & Vicki L. Hesli, 'Understanding Political Change in Post-Soviet Societies: A Further Commentary on Finifter and Mickiewicz', American Political Science Review, 90, 1, March 1996, pp. 153-166.
159. Author's interview with Marmazov.