Acid rain and transboundary air quality in Canadian-American relations

American Review of Canadian Studies

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 327-358

  Munton, Don ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACID RAIN; AIR QUALITY; BILATERAL RELATIONS; ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE; POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE; POLLUTION POLICY; TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION;

CANADA; USA;

EID: 0031370571     PISSN: 02722011     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02722019709481554     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. Speech by Canadian environment minister, Romeo LeBlanc; see Ross Howard, "Industrial Pollutants 'Time Bomb' LeBlanc Warns," Toronto Star (21 June 1977): B2.
2. Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality, Ottawa, 1991. (Hereafter cited: "Air Quality Agreement".) On the cooperativeness and mutual responsiveness of the Canada-United States relationship, see Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little Brown, 1989), and K.J. Holsti, "Canada and the United States," in S. Spiegel and Kenneth N. Waltz, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Cambridge: Winthrop, 1971), 375-96.
3. Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality, Ottawa, 1991. (Hereafter cited: "Air Quality Agreement".) On the cooperativeness and mutual responsiveness of the Canada-United States relationship, see Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little Brown, 1989), and K.J. Holsti, "Canada and the United States," in S. Spiegel and Kenneth N. Waltz, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Cambridge: Winthrop, 1971), 375-96.
4. Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality, Ottawa, 1991. (Hereafter cited: "Air Quality Agreement".) On the cooperativeness and mutual responsiveness of the Canada-United States relationship, see Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little Brown, 1989), and K.J. Holsti, "Canada and the United States," in S. Spiegel and Kenneth N. Waltz, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Cambridge: Winthrop, 1971), 375-96.
5. Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality, Ottawa, 1991. (Hereafter cited: "Air Quality Agreement".) On the cooperativeness and mutual responsiveness of the Canada-United States relationship, see Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little Brown, 1989), and K.J. Holsti, "Canada and the United States," in S. Spiegel and Kenneth N. Waltz, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Cambridge: Winthrop, 1971), 375-96.
6. For a nontechnical introduction to the science of acid rain, see G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain," Scientific American 241 (1979): 43-51.
7. For a fuller analysis of developments in the science of acid rain, see Don Munton, "Acid Rain and Basic Politics," Alternatives 10 (1981): 21-28; and E.B. Cowling, "Acid Precipitation in Historical Perspective," Environmental Science and Technology 16 (1982): 110A-123A.
8. For a fuller analysis of developments in the science of acid rain, see Don Munton, "Acid Rain and Basic Politics," Alternatives 10 (1981): 21-28; and E.B. Cowling, "Acid Precipitation in Historical Perspective," Environmental Science and Technology 16 (1982): 110A-123A.
9. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
10. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
11. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
12. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
13. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
14. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
15. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
16. Pioneering work includes E. Gorham, "On the Acidity and Salinity of Rain," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 7 (1955): 231-239, 1955; Gorham, "The Chemical Composition of Lake Waters in Halifax, Nova Scotia," Limnology and Oceanography 2 (1957): 12-21; Gorham and A.G. Gordon, "The Influence of Smelter Fumes upon the Chemical Composition of Lake Waters near Sudbury, Ontario, and upon the Surrounding Vegetation," Canadian Journal of Botany 38 (1960): 477-487; R. J. Beamish, "Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and the Resulting Effects on Fish," Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6 (1976): 501-514; Beamish and Harold Harvey, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and Resulting Fish Mortalities," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29 (1972): 1131-43; G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, "Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem," Science 84 (1974): 1176-79; Likens, Bormann, and N.M. Johnson, "Acid Rain," Environment 14 (1972): 33-39; Ellis Cowling and Svante Odén, joint presentation, 1980. United States House of Representatives Committee on Inter-State and Foreign Commerce, Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations, Hearings on Acid Rain, Ninety-Sixth Congress, Second Session (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 26 and 27, Serial No. 96-150).
17. Howard.
18. Canada-United States Research Consultation Group on the Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants, The LRTAP Problem in North America: A Preliminary Overview (Ottawa, 1979) and Second Report (Ottawa, 1980).
19. Canada-United States Research Consultation Group on the Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants, The LRTAP Problem in North America: A Preliminary Overview (Ottawa, 1979) and Second Report (Ottawa, 1980).
20. United States Senate, Resolution 465, 24 May 1978, 95th Congress, 2nd Session.
21. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. 1979. UN/ECE/GE 79-42960 (reprinted in Environmental Law and Policy 6 (1980): 37-40.
22. On other factors behind the American resistance to acid rain controls, in addition to the administration's views and the strong economic and regional interests related to the combustion of high-sulfur coal, see Don Munton, "Life, Liberty and the American Pursuit of Acid Rain," Alternatives 11 (1983): 13-20.
23. Raymond M. Robinson, "The Rule of Law Between Nations - An Acid Test." Address to National Academy of Sciences, Seventh Symposium on Statistics and the Environment, Washington, DC, 4-5 October 1982; Bureau of National Affairs, "Canadian Official Accuses Administration of Manipulating Acid Rain Scientific Work," BNA Environment Reporter 13 (1982): 782.
24. Raymond M. Robinson, "The Rule of Law Between Nations - An Acid Test." Address to National Academy of Sciences, Seventh Symposium on Statistics and the Environment, Washington, DC, 4-5 October 1982; Bureau of National Affairs, "Canadian Official Accuses Administration of Manipulating Acid Rain Scientific Work," BNA Environment Reporter 13 (1982): 782.
25. 2 emissions in 1980 came from stacks taller than 150 meters, up from 5 percent in 1950. Gschwandtner et al.
26. 2 emissions in 1980 came from stacks taller than 150 meters, up from 5 percent in 1950. Gschwandtner et al.
27. x emissions climbed from twenty million tons to twenty-two million tons per annum over the decade. See Gschwandtner et al.
28. See Carol Garland, "Acid Rain over the United States and Canada: The DC Circuit Fails to Provide Shelter under Section 115 of the U.S. Clean Air Act while State Action Provides a Temporary Umbrella," Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 16 (1988): 1-37.
29. The notes for Stockman's presentation were later published in Inside EPA (10 February 1984): 9-10.
30. Bill Walker, "PM Decries Our Record on Acid Rain," Toronto Star (2 February 1985): A3.
31. 2 regulations, not the actual emissions, which were, at the time, lower. In real terms, the reductions agreed to by the provinces amounted to only a 35 percent reduction from actual 1980 emissions.
32. Environment Canada, "Tighter Standards for New Cars Announced," Press Release, PR-HQ-085-15 (6 March 1985). Due to the fact that new vehicles are part of interprovincial trade, the Canadian federal government has apparently unchallenged constitutional authority to regulate their emissions.
33. 2 control program was based on a 50 percent reduction of emissions from a 1980 base level in the seven eastern provinces. Taken on a national basis, the Canadian reduction was actually about 35 percent, and even that was based on some generous assumptions about the 1980 base case. While the Canadians argued that the Western Canadian emissions were of little consequence, the Europeans pressed for "national" targets. Eventually, the Canadians relented and the 30 percent figure was agreed upon.
34. On these protocols, see Marvin Soroos, The Endangered Atmosphere (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), chap 5.
35. Another important political development was the replacement of Senator Byrd as Senate majority leader with George Mitchell of Maine, a longtime and strong proponent of such controls.
36. On the political processes leading directly to the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, see Richard E. Cohen, Washington at Work: Back Rooms and Clean Air (New York: MacMillan, 1992). See, for example, "Acid Rain Bill Clears Final U.S. Hurdle," Ottawa Citizen (12 November 1990), and CP News Analysis (12 March 1991).
37. On the political processes leading directly to the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, see Richard E. Cohen, Washington at Work: Back Rooms and Clean Air (New York: MacMillan, 1992). See, for example, "Acid Rain Bill Clears Final U.S. Hurdle," Ottawa Citizen (12 November 1990), and CP News Analysis (12 March 1991).
38. On the political processes leading directly to the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, see Richard E. Cohen, Washington at Work: Back Rooms and Clean Air (New York: MacMillan, 1992). See, for example, "Acid Rain Bill Clears Final U.S. Hurdle," Ottawa Citizen (12 November 1990), and CP News Analysis (12 March 1991).
39. x emissions for cars in the 1994 model year from 1.0 to 0.4 grams per vehicle mile. However, the number of vehicle miles traveled in the United States grew by twenty-five billion miles per year between 1970 and 1988. Clean Air Act, Section 202; Senate Report No. 101-228, 1990, 3470.
40. The 1990 Clean Air Act maintained the 1977 provisions for PSD and authorized $8 million for researching visibility issues.
41. As recently as the consultations on the Mulroney government's "Green Plan" in the summer of 1990, the western provinces had essentially refused to talk about a national cap. Interview with Alex Manson, Environment Canada, Ottawa (2 August 1991).
42. Telephone interview, Kirk Johnstone, Scientific Service Division, Atmospheric Environment Service, Vancouver (12 March 1993). Both federal officials and their provincial counterparts agree that the arrangement does not imply a western cap of 0.9 million tonnes. The eastern cap, in any case, expires in the year 2000. Interviews, Alex Manson, Environment Canada (2 August 1991) and Harby Sandhu, Environment Alberta (23 September 1991).
43. Transport Canada, Environment Canada, A Plan to Identify and Assess Emission Reduction Opportunities from Transportation, Industrial Engines and Motor Fuels, (Ottawa, 1989). In Canada, as in the United States, new car emission standards are a federal responsibility.
44. Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement, Annex 1, Section 4.
45. Any country can, in any specific instance, be environmentally dependent on another. In the Trail Smelter case, cited earlier, the United States was environmentally dependent on Canada and, in the example cited below, environmentally dependent on Mexico. For an elaboration of this concept, see my "Dependence and Interdependence in Transboundary Environmental Relations," International Journal 36 (Winter 1980-81): 139-84.
46. "Agreement of Cooperation between the United States of America and the United Mexican States Regarding Transboundary Air Pollution Caused by Copper Smelters on their Common Border," Annex IV to the Agreement between the USA and Mexico on Cooperation for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment in the Border Area (Washington, 29 January 1987). The document is carefully worded so as not to contradict U.S. administration positions on the "uncertainties" of long-range transport, and instead focuses on environmental problems "along the common border."
47. Given the situation of environmental dependence described earlier, the dependent state has relatively little to offer at the bargaining table. And, unlike the accepted practices of international trade regimes which provide for retaliation in response to unfair trading practices, international environmental law provides no equivalent option. There are, thus, remarkably few avenues for penalizing an offending neighbor, short of attempting to increase one's own transboundary pollution headed into the other state -which, even if feasible, is not an option which is normally considered.
48. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
49. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
50. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
51. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
52. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
53. See United States and Canada, Memorandum of Intent on Transboundary Air Pollution, "Executive Summaries, Work Group Reports," February 1983; National Academy of Sciences, Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions: Toward a Better Understanding of the Ecological Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion (Washington: National Academy Press, 1981); National Academy of Sciences, Acid Deposition: Atmospheric Processes in Eastern North America (Washington: National Academy Press, 1983); United States Office of Science and Technology Policy, Report of the Acid Rain Peer Review Panel, William A. Nierenberg, Chairman (Washington, 1984); United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Implications for Public Policy, Washington, OTA-O-204, June 1984; United States, National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Interim Assessment: The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition Washington, 1987.
54. 2 controls were going to happen, Byrd wanted to ensure that his UMW members and high-sulphur coal from West Virginia were protected, by requiring electrical generating plants to add expensive end-of-the-pipe scrubber systems. While Byrd's home state of West Virginia also has substantial low-sulphur coal deposits, his foremost loyalty was to the mine workers union, and its membership was predominantly workers in high-sulphur coal mines.
55. Canada and United States, Air Quality Agreement, Progress Report (1996), 24-5.
56. Interview with Wayne Draper, Environment Canada (12 August 1997).
57. It is also the case that toxic substances have proven to be a much more difficult management problem under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement than phosphates ever were, and they will undoubtedly prove to be at least as difficult an air pollution management problem. In the decision to not tackle these under the 1991 Air Quality Agreement (AQA) there may, therefore, be a certain element of discretion being "the better part of valor."
58. Environment Canada, 1997 Canadian Acid Rain Assessment, 5 vols. (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1997) and The Acidifying Emissions Task Group, Towards a National Acid Rain Strategy. Report submitted to the National Air Issues Coordinating Committee, 1997.
59. Environment Canada, 1997 Canadian Acid Rain Assessment, 5 vols. (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1997) and The Acidifying Emissions Task Group, Towards a National Acid Rain Strategy. Report submitted to the National Air Issues Coordinating Committee, 1997.
60. Holsti.
61. For a summary of the actions taken and the reductions achieved, see Don Munton, Marvin Soroos, Elena Nikitina, and Marc Levy, "Acid Rain in Europe and North America," in Oran R. Young, ed., The Effectiveness of International Regimes (Cambridge: The MIT Press, forthcoming 1999).