Current and historical roles of apex predators in the Bering Sea ecosystem

Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science

Volumn 22, Issue , 1997, Pages 343-355

  Merrick, Richard L ^a  

^a NORTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GROUNDFISH; MARINE ECOSYSTEM; MARINE MAMMAL; PREDATOR; PREY PREFERENCE; SEABIRD;

BERING SEA;

ANIMALIA; AVES; CETACEA; EUMETOPIAS JUBATUS; GALLIFORMES; LARIDAE; LARUS; MALLOTUS VILLOSUS; MAMMALIA; OTARIIDAE; PANTHERA LEO; PHOCIDAE; PISCES; POLLACHIUS VIRENS; RISSA TRIDACTYLA; STIZOSTEDION VITREUM; THERAGRA CHALCOGRAMMA; URIA;

EID: 0031350887     PISSN: 02506408     EISSN: 18131859     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2960/J.v22.a24     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. ALASKA SEA GRANT. 1983. Proceedings of the workshop on biological interactions among marine mammals and commercial fisheries in the southeastern Bering Sea, October 18-21 1983. Alaska Sea Grant Rep., 84-1, 300 p.
2. 1993. Is it food? Addressing marine mammal and seabird declines. Workshop summary. Alaska Sea Grant Rep., 93-01, 59 p.
3. ALBERS, W. D. and P. J. ANDERSON. 1985. Diet of Pacific cod, Gadus macrocephalus, and predation on the Northern pink shrimp, Pandalus borealis, in Pavlof Bay, Alaska. Fish. Bull. U.S., 83: 601-610.
4. ALLEN, P. M. 1985. Ecology, thermodynamics, and self-organization: Towards a new understanding of complexity, p. 3-26. In: Ecosystem Theory for Biological Oceanography. R. E. Ulanowicz and T. Platt (eds.). Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 213: 3-26.
5. ALVERSON, D. L. 1991. Commercial fisheries and the Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus): The conflict arena. Univ. Wash. Fish. Res. Inst., Seattle, WA. 90 p.
6. ANDERSON, P. J., J. B. BLACKBURN, and B. A. JOHNSON. MS 1995. Historical review of small-mesh trawl sampling in the Gulf of Alaska with special reference to forage species. Prep, for Exxon Valdez oil spill restoration trustees, Apex, Proj. 29 p. (Available from National Marine Mammal Laboratory Library, NMFS, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115).
7. ANON. MS 1992. Report of the Joint ICES/NAFO Working Group on harp and hooded seals, Copenhagen, 14-18 October 1991. ICES C.M. Doc., No. Assess. 5, 31 p.
8. MS 1994. Report of the Joint ICES/NAFO Working Group on harp and hooded seals, Copenhagen, 15-21 September 1993. ICES C.M. Doc., No. Assess. 5, 35 p.
9. 1995. State of the environment Norway - biodiversity. UNEP GRID- Arendal, Longum Park, Norway.
10. APOLLONIO, S. 1994. The uses of ecosystem characteristics in fisheries management. Rev. Fish. Sci., 2: 157-180.
11. BAKKALA, R. G. 1993. Structural and historical changes in the groundfish complex of the eastern Bering Sea. NOAA Tech. Rep., NMFS No. 114. 91 p.
12. BAKKALA, R. G., V. G. WESPESTAD, and L. LOW. 1987. Historical trends in abundance and current conditions of walleye pollock in the eastern Bering Sea. Fish. Res., 5: 199-215.
13. BARLOW, J, R. L. BROWNELL, Jr., D. P. DeMASTER, K. A. FORNEY, M. S. LOWRY. S. OSMEK, T. J. RAGEN, R. R. REEVES, and R. J. SMALL. 1995. U. S. Pacific marine mammal stock assessments. NOAA Tech. Mem., NMFS/SWFSC 219. 162 p.
14. BEAMISH, R. J. 1994. Climate change and exceptional fish production off the west coast of North America. Can. J. Fish, Aquat. Sci., 51: 2270-2291.
15. BEAMISH, R. J., and D. R. BOULLION. 1993. Pacific salmon production trends in relation to climate. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 50: 1002-1016.
16. Marine fish production trends off the Pacific coast of Canada and the United States, In: Climate change and northern fish populations.R. J. Beamish (ed.), Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 585-591.
17. BEDDINGTON, J. R., R. J. H. BEVERTON, and D. M. LAVIGNE. 1987. Marine mammals and fisheries. Alien and Unwin, London. 354 p.
18. BRAHAM, H. W., R. D. EVERITT, and D. J. RUGH. 1980. Northern sea lion decline in the eastern Aleutian Islands. J. Wildl. Mgmt., 44: 25-33.
19. BRODEUR, R. D., and D. M. WARE. 1992. Long-term variability in Zooplankton biomass in the subarctic Pacific Ocean. Fish. Oceanogr., 1: 32-38.
20. Interdecadal variability in the distribution and catch rates of epipelagic nekton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.), Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 329-356.
21. CARPENTER, S. R., J. F. KITCHELL, and J. R. HODGSON. 1985. Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. Bioscience, 35: 634-639.
22. COLE, L. C. 1954. The population consequences of life history phenomena. Quart. Rev. Biol., 29: 103-137.
23. COONEY, R. T., M. E. CLARKE, and P. D. WALLINE. 1980. Food dependencies for larval, post larval, and juvenile walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma (Pallas), in the southeastern Bering Sea, In: PROBES: Processes and resources of the Bering Sea shelf. Univ. Alaska, Inst. Mar. Sci., Fairbanks, AK., Prog. Rep., 180: 167-189.
24. DECKER, M. B., G. L. HUNT, Jr., and G. V. BYRD, Jr. 1995. The relationships among sea-surface temperature, the abundance of juvenile walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and the reproductive performance and diets of seabirds in the Pribilof Islands, southeastern Bering Sea, In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 425-437.
25. DICKIE, L. M. 1973. Management of fisheries: ecological subsystems. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 102: 470-480.
26. DWYER, A. D., K. M. BAILEY, P. A. LIVINGSTON, and M. YANG. 1986. Some preliminary observations on the feeding habits of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) in the eastern Bering Sea, based on field and laboratory measurements, In: Symp. biology, stock assessment, and management of pollock, Pacific cod, and hake in the North Pacific region. Int. North Pac. Halibut Comm., Bull. No. 45: 228-246.
27. ESTES, J. A. 1979. Exploitation of marine mammals: r-selection of K-strategists? J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 36: 1009-1017.
28. Top-level carnivores and ecosystem effects: questions and approaches, In: Linking species and ecosystems. C. G. Jones and J. H. Lawton (eds.), Chapman Hall, New York, p. 151-158.
29. FERRERO, R. and L. W. FRITZ. 1994. Comparisons of walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma, harvest to Steller sea lion, Eumetopias jubatus, abundance in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Mem., NMFS AFSC-43, 23 p.
30. FRANCIS, R. C. and S. R. HARE. 1994. Decadal-scale regime shifts in the large marine ecosystems of the North-east Pacific: a case of historical science. Fish. Oceanogr., 3: 279-291.
31. FRITZ, L. W., V. G. WESPESTAD, and J. S. COLLIE. 1993. Distribution and abundance trends of forage fishes in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska, In: Is it food?: Addressing marine mammal and seabird declines. Workshop summary. Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks, AK., Alaska Sea Grant Rep., 93-01, p. 30-44.
32. GASKIN, D. E. 1982. The ecology of whales and dolphins. Heineman, London. 459 p.
33. GJØSœTER, H. 1995. Pelagic fish and the ecological impact of the modern fishing industry in the Barents Sea. Arctic, 48: 267-278.
34. HAMRE, J. 1994. Biodiversity and exploitation of the main fish stocks in the Norwegian-Barents Sea ecosystem. Biodivers. Cons., 3: 473-492.
35. HARE, S. R., and R. C. FRANCIS. 1995. Climate change and salmon production in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.), Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 357-372.
36. HARWOOD, J. 1983. Interactions between marine mammals and fisheries, In: Advances in Applied Biology. Acad. Press, London, p. 189-214.
37. HATCH, S. A. 1993. Population trends of Alaskan seabirds. Pac. Seabird Crp. Bull., 20: 3-12.
38. HOLLOWED, A. B., and W. S. WOOSTER. 1992. Variability of winter ocean conditions and strong year classes of Northeast Pacific groundfish. ICES Mar. Sci. Sym., 195: 433-444.
39. 1995. Decadal-scale variations in the eastern subarctic Pacific: II. Response of Northeast Pacific fish stocks, In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.), Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 373-385.
40. HUNT, G. L. Jr., M. B. DECKER, and A. KITAYSKY. 1996. Fluctuations in the Bering Sea ecosystem as reflected in the reproductive ecology and diets of kittiwakes on the Pribilof Islands, 1975 to 1991. In: Aquatic predators and their prey. S. P. R. Greenstreet and M. L. Tasker (eds.), Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford p. 142-153.
41. ITO, D. H., and J. N. IANELLI. 1994. Pacific ocean perch. In: Stock assessment and fishery evaluation report for the groundfish resources of the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands regions as projected for 1995. Bering Sea/Aleutian Island Groundfish Plan Team, North Pacific Fishery Management Council, 605 W. 4th Ave, Suite 306, Anchorage, AK 99501, 37 p.
42. KENYON, K. W., V. B. SCHEFFER, and D. G. CHAPMAN. 1954. A population study of the Alaskan fur-seal herd. U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, Spec. Sci. Rep., Wildl. No. 12, 77 p.
43. KERR, R. A. 1992. Unmasking a shifty climate system. Science, 255: 1508-1510.
44. KRUSE, G. H. 1993. Biological perspectives on crab management in Alaska, p.355-384. In: Proc. Int. Sym. Manage. Start. Exploit. Fish Pop; Alaska Sea Grant, AK-SG-93-02: 355-384.
45. KJELLQWIST, S. A., T. HAUG, and T. ØRITSLAND. 1995. Trends in age-composition, growth and reproductive parameters of Barents Sea harp seals, Phoca groenlandica. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 52: 197-208.
46. LAWS, R. M. 1985. The ecology of the southern ocean. Am. Sci., 73; 26-40.
47. LIVINGSTON, P. A. 1991. Groundfish food habits and predation on commercially important prey species in the eastern Bering Sea from 1984 to 1986. NOAA Tech. Mem., NMFS F/NWC-207, 240 p.
48. Importance of predation by groundfish, marine mammals, and birds on walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) in the eastern Bering Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 102: 205-215.
49. Ecosystem components: trophic structure, In: Ecosystem Considerations. North Pacific Fisheries Management Council, Anchorage, AK, p. 11-26.
50. LIVINGSTON, P. A., A. WARD, G. M. LANG, and M. S. YANG. 1993. Groundfish food habits and predation on commercially important prey species in the eastern Bering Sea from 1987 to 1989. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Mem., NMFS-AFSC-11. 192 p.
51. LOWE, S. A., and L. W. FRITZ. 1995. Atka mackerel. In: Stock assessment and fishery evaluation report for the groundfish resources of the Bering Sea/Aleutian Island regions as projected for 1996. Bering Sea and Aleutian Island Plan Team, North Pacific Fish- ery Management Council, Anchorage, AK, 59 p.
52. LOUGHLIN, T. R., and R. L. MERRICK. 1989. Comparison of commercial harvests of walleye pollock and northern sea lion abundance in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska, In: Proc. Int. Sym.. Biol. Manage. Walleye Pollock. Alaska Sea Grant Rep., 89-1, p. 679-700.
53. MARGALEF, R. 1975. Diversity, stability, and maturity in natural ecosystems, In: Unifying concepts in ecology. W. H.van Dobhen and R. H. Lowe-McConnell (eds.) W. Junk. B. V. Publishers, The Hague, p. 151-160.
54. MERRICK, R. L. 1995. The relationship of the foraging ecology of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) to their population decline in Alaska. Ph. D. diss., Univ. Wash., Seattle, 175 p.
55. MERRICK, R. L., M. K. CHUMBLEY, and G. V. BYRD. 1997. A potential relationship between the diet diversity of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) and their population decline in Alaska. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 54: 1342-1348.
56. MERRICK, R. L., and D. G. CALKINS. 1996. Importance of juvenile walleye pollock in the diet of Gulf of Alaska Steller sea lions, In: Ecology of juvenile walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma, R. D. Brodeur, P. A. Livingston, T. R. Loughlin, and A. B. Hollowed, (eds.), NOAA Tech. Rep., NMFS 126: 153-166.
57. MERRICK, R. L., T. R. LOUGHLIN, and D. G. CALKINS. 1987. Decline in abundance of the northern sea lion, Eumetopias jubatus, in Alaska, 1956-86. Fish. Bull. U.S., 85: 351-365.
58. MYERS, R. A., and N. J. BARROWMAN. 1996. Is fish recruitment related to spawner abundance? Fish. Bull., 94: 707-724.
59. NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE (NMFS). 1993. Final conservation plan for the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus). Prep. by NMML, AFSC, NMFS, Seattle, WA, and Off. Pro. Res./NMFS, Silver Spring, MD, 80 p. (Available from National Marine Mammal Laboratory Library, NMFS, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115).
60. 1995. Status review of the United States Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) population. Prep. by NMML, AFSC, NMFS, Seattle, WA 45 p. (Available from National Marine Mammal Laboratory Library, NMFS, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115).
61. NORTHRIDGE, S. P. 1991. An updated world review of interactions between marine mammals and fisheries. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., 251: 58 p.
62. O'NEILL, R. V., D. L. DeANGELIS, J. B. WAIDE, and T. F. H. ALLEN. 1986. A hierarchical concept of eco-systems. Princeton Univ. Press, 312 p.
63. OTTO, R, S. 1989. An overview of eastern Bering Sea king and Tanner crab fisheries. In: Proc. Int. Symp. King and Tanner Crabs, Alaska Sea Grant AK-SG-90-04: 9-26.
64. PEREZ, M. A. 1986. Estimating total consumption of walleye pollock by northern fur seals in the eastern Bering Sea using diet composition data. In: Summary of joint research on the diets of northern fur seals and fish in the Bering Sea during 1981. T. R. Loughlin and P. A. Livingston (eds.), AFSC Proc. Rep. 86-19: 31-38.
65. 1994. Calorimetry measurements of energy value of some Alaskan fishes and squids. NOAA Tech. Mem., NMFS-AFSC-32, 32 p.
66. PEREZ, M. A., and M. A. BIGG. 1986. Diet of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) off western North America. Fish. Bull. U.S., 84: 957-971.
67. PEREZ, M. A., and T. R. LOUGHLIN. 1991. Incidental catch of marine mammals by foreign and JV trawl vessels in the U.S. EEZ of the North Pacific. NOAA Tech. Rep., NMFS 104, 57p.
68. PEREZ, M. A., and W. B. MCALLISTER. 1993. Estimates of food consumption by marine mammals in the eastern Bering Sea. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-AFSC-14, 36 p.
69. PIANKA, E. R. 1970. On "r" and "K" selection. Am. Nat., 104: 592-597.
70. PIATT, J. F., and P. ANDERSON. 1996. Response of common murres to the Exxon Valdez oil spill and long-term changes in the Gulf of Alaska marine ecosystem. In: Exxon Valdez oil spill symposium proceedings. S. D. Rice, R. B. Spies, D. A. Wolfe, and B. A. Wright (eds.). Amer. Fish. Soc. Sym., No. 18: 720-737.
71. PITCHER, K. W. 1980. Stomach contents and feces as indicators of harbor seal, Phoca vitulina, foods in the Gulf of Alaska. Fish. Bull. U.S., 78: 797-798.
72. 1981. Prey of the Steller sea lion, Eumetopias jubatus, in the Gulf of Alaska. Fish. Bull. U.S., 79: 467-472.
73. POLOVINA, J. J., G. T. MITCHUM, and G. T. EVANS. 1995. Decadal and basin-scale variation in mixed layer depth and the impact on biological production in the Central and North Pacific, 1960-88. Deep Sea Res., 42: 1701-1716.
74. RAY, G. C. 1981. The role of large organisms. In: Analysis of marine ecosystems. A. R. Longhurst (ed.). Acad. Press, New York, p. 397-413.
75. ROYER, T. C. 1989. Upper ocean temperature variability in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: is it an indicator of global warming? J. Geophys. Res., 94: 18175-18183.
76. 1993. High-latitude oceanic variability associated with the 18.6-year nodal tide. J. Geophys. Res., 98; 4639-4644.
77. SINCLAIR, E., T. LOUGHLIN, and W. PEARCY. 1994. Prey selection by northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) in the eastern Bering Sea. Fish. Bull. U.S., 92: 144-156.
78. SINCLAIR, E. H., G. A. ANTONELIS, B. W. ROBSON, R. R. REAM, and T. R. LOUGHLIN. 1996. Northern fur seal predation on juvenile walleye pollock. In: Ecology of juvenile walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma. R. D. Brodeur, P. A. Livingston, T. R. Loughlin, and A. B. Hollowed, (eds.). NOAA Tech. Rep., NMFS, 126: 167-178.
79. SMALL, R. J., and D. P. DeMASTER. 1995. Alaska marine mammal stock assessments 1995. NMFS, NMML, Seattle, WA, 93 p.
80. SMITH, G. B. 1981. The biology of walleye pollock. In: The eastern Bering Sea shelf: oceanography and resources, Vol I., D. W. Hood and J. A. Calder (eds.). U.S. Gov. Printing Off., Wash. D.C., p. 527-551.
81. SPRINGER, A. M. 1992. A review: Walleye pollock in the North Pacific. How much difference do they really make? Fish Oceanog., 1: 80-96.
82. STEARNS, S. C. 1976. Life-history tactics: a review of the ideas. Quart. Rev. Biol., 51: 3-47.
83. TABATA, S. 1989. Trends in long-term variability of ocean properties at Ocean Station P in the northeast Pacific Ocean. In: Aspects of climate variability in the Pacific and western Americas. D. H. Peterson (ed.), Geophys. Monogr., 55: 113-132.
84. TAKAHASHI, Y., and H. YAMAGUCHI. 1972. Stock of the Alaska pollock in the eastern Bering Sea. Bull. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish., 38: 389-399 (in Japanese, English summary).
85. TOMILIN, A. G. 1957. Mammals of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Vol. 9 Cetacea. Izd. Akad. Nauk. SSR, Moscow, 756 p. (in Russian, Transl, by Isr. Prog. Sci. Transl., 1967).
86. TRENBERTH, K. E., and J. W. HURRELL. 1995. Decadal coupling atmospheric-ocean variations in the North Pacific Ocean. In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.). Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 15-24.
87. VENRICK, E. L. 1995. Scales of variability in a stable environment: Phytoplankton in the central North Pacific. Chapter 10. In: Ecological time series. T. M. Powell and J. H. Steele (ed.). Chapman Hall, New York, p. 121-140.
88. VENRICK, E. L., J. A. MCGOWAN, D. R. CAYAN, and T. L. HAYWARD. 1987. Climate and chlorophyll a: Long-term trends in the central north Pacific Ocean, Sci., 238: 70-72.
89. WALLINE, P. D. 1983. Growth of larval and juvenile walleye pollock related to year class strength. Ph. D. diss., Univ. Wash., Seattle, 144 p.
90. WESPESTAD, V. G. 1991. Pacific herring population dynamics, early life history, and recruitment variation relative to eastern Bering Sea oceanographic factors. Ph. D. dissertation. Univ. Wash., Seattle, 237 p.
91. Walleye pollock. In: Stock assessment and fishery evaluation report for the groundfish resources of the Bering Sea/Aleutian Island regions as projected for 1995.Bering Sea and Aleutian Island Plan Team, North Pacific Fishery Management Council, Anchorage, AK, 29 p.
92. WESPESTAD, V. G., and S. M. FRIED. 1983. Review of the biology and abundance trends of Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi). In: From year to year: Interannual variability of the environment and fisheries of the Gulf of Alaska and the eastern Bering Sea. W. S. Wooster (ed.). WA Sea Grant Publ., WSG-WO-83-3: 17-29.
93. WOOSTER, W., and A. HOLLOWED. 1995. Decadal-scale variations in the eastern subarctic Pacific. I. Winter ocean conditions, In: Climate change and northern fish populations. R. J. Beamish (ed.). Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 121: 81-85.
94. YORK, A. E., and J. R. HARTLEY. 1981. Pup production following harvest of female northern fur seals. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 38: 84-90.
95. YORK, A. E., and P. KOZLOFF. 1987. On the estimation of numbers of northern fur seals. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 38: 84-90.