Violent conflicts and human rights violations in the mid-1990s

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 9, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 166-192

  Schmid, A P ^a,b   Jongman, A J ^c  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b Center for the Study of Social Conflicts   (Netherlands)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031329970     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546559708427436     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. R.L. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures 1996 (Washington, DC: World Priorities) p.7.
2. The data refer partly also to the post-Cold War period. Michael Cranna (ed.), The True Cost of Conflict (London: Earthscan 1994) p.xvii.
3. Sivard (note l)p.11.
4. List partly based on K.J. Holsti, The State, War. and the State of War (Cambridge: CUP 1996) p.121.
5. For earlier PIOOM surveys, see PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 6 (1994) pp.20-1; PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 7 (1995) p.21 ; and A.J. Jongman and A.P. Schmid, 'Contemporary Armed Conflicts - A Brief Survey,' in Dutch Centre for Conflict Prevention, in cooperation with ACCESS and PIOOM (ed.), Prevention and Management of Conflicts. An International Directory (Amsterdam: NCDO 1996) pp.25-9.
6. For earlier PIOOM surveys, see PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 6 (1994) pp.20-1; PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 7 (1995) p.21 ; and A.J. Jongman and A.P. Schmid, 'Contemporary Armed Conflicts - A Brief Survey,' in Dutch Centre for Conflict Prevention, in cooperation with ACCESS and PIOOM (ed.), Prevention and Management of Conflicts. An International Directory (Amsterdam: NCDO 1996) pp.25-9.
7. For earlier PIOOM surveys, see PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 6 (1994) pp.20-1; PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 7 (1995) p.21 ; and A.J. Jongman and A.P. Schmid, 'Contemporary Armed Conflicts - A Brief Survey,' in Dutch Centre for Conflict Prevention, in cooperation with ACCESS and PIOOM (ed.), Prevention and Management of Conflicts. An International Directory (Amsterdam: NCDO 1996) pp.25-9.
8. David Kinsella and Herbert K. Tillema, 'Arms and Aggression in the Middle East: Overt Military Interventions, 1948-1991', Journal of Conflict Resolution 39/2 (June 1995) p.311.3. Sivard (note 1)p.11.
9. Some of the UN peace missions date back to the origins of the organization (e.g. UNTSO in Israel since 1948; UNMOGIP at the Indian/Pakistani border, since 1949) and once they were there they tended to last for decades (as UNFICYP in Cyprus since 1964 or UNDOF at the Israeli/Syrian border since 1974 or UNIFIL in southern Lebanon since 1978), indicating that these conflicts were never solved. However, most are of recent post-Cold War origin, like the long overdue UN mission to Cambodia (UNTAC) which began its work in 1992 - almost 14 years after the genocide of the Khmer Rouge that killed up to a third of all Cambodians. While some missions like UNTAC can be considered at least a qualified success (these would include ONUSAL in El Salvador, NOMOZ in Mozambique and UNTAC in Cambodia) others have brought at best mixed results (such as UNOSOM II in Somalia since 1993 or UNPROFOR in Croatia and Bosnia since 1992) while others have been a failure (notably UNAMIR in Rwanda since 1993) or inconspicuous in its results (like UNAVEM II in Angola since 1991).
10. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, World Disasters Report 1996 (Oxford: OUP 1996) p.9.
11. Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Statement to the 1996 Substantive Session of ECOSOC on the Annual Report of UNHCR, 18 July 1996 (mimeo), p.l.
12. Ibid., p.7.
13. Sivard (note 1) p.12; Jo L. Husbands, 'Preventing the Spread of Arms Delivery Means and Conventional Weapons', in J.A. Larsen and G.J. Rattray (eds), Arms Control. Toward the 21st Century (Boulder, CO: Rienner 1996) p.229.
14. Sivard (note 1) p.12; Jo L. Husbands, 'Preventing the Spread of Arms Delivery Means and Conventional Weapons', in J.A. Larsen and G.J. Rattray (eds), Arms Control. Toward the 21st Century (Boulder, CO: Rienner 1996) p.229.
15. Sivard(note 1)p.5.
16. Husbands (note 11) p.232.
17. Ad Woudenberg, 'Oorlogsbedrijven en de Wapenhandel in Afrika' Overleven 15/64 (March 1997) pp.10, 12 [magazine in Amsterdam].
18. Sivard (note 1) p.15.
19. Jane E. Holl, Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict. Second Progress Report, New York, July 1996, p.3; Husbands (note 11) p.237.
20. Sivard (note 1) p.15.
21. Pacific Research (Australian National University) 9/3 (Aug. 1996) p.5. SIPRI lists figures that differ somewhat from the above: 'At the beginning of 1995, there were at least 20,000 nuclear warheads in the operational inventories of the NPT nuclear weapon states: 7770 strategic and several hundred tactical warheads for the USA; 8527 strategic and 2000-6000 tactical warheads for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); 250-300 warheads for the UK; just over 500 warheads for France; and approximately 300 warheads for China. There were fewer than 100 warheads in Israel.' SIPRI Yearbook 1996, p.327.
22. Pacific Research (Australian National University) 9/3 (Aug. 1996) p.5. SIPRI lists figures that differ somewhat from the above: 'At the beginning of 1995, there were at least 20,000 nuclear warheads in the operational inventories of the NPT nuclear weapon states: 7770 strategic and several hundred tactical warheads for the USA; 8527 strategic and 2000-6000 tactical warheads for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); 250-300 warheads for the UK; just over 500 warheads for France; and approximately 300 warheads for China. There were fewer than 100 warheads in Israel.' SIPRI Yearbook 1996, p.327.
23. David Kay in lecture at George Washington University, Washington, DC, 14 Jan. 1997. Figures cited by R.L. Sivard differ from these. According to Sivard, '...Iraq had stockpiled over 27,000 chemical bombs, rockets and artillery shells, 30 SCUD chemical warheads, 500 tons of mustard and nerve agents, and thousands of tons of precursor chemicals.(...) In 1995 Iraq also revealed an extensive biological warfare program to United Nations inspectors including :90,000 litres of botulinum toxin, 8,300 liters of anthrax, large amounts of a cancer-causing agent, and research on mycotoxins and infectious viruses.' (note 1) p.27.
24. According to the CIA; cit. Marie Isabelle Chevrier, 'The Control of Biological Weapons', in Larsen and Rattray (eds), Arms Control (note 11) p.217.
25. For a history of this bizarre sect, see David Kaplan and Andrew Marshall, De sekte aan het einde van de wereld (Amsterdam: Sijlhoff 1996).
26. Rachel Brett and Margaret McCallin, Children. The Invisible Soldiers (Vaxjo: Redda Bamen 1996) p. 16.
27. Ibid., pp.20-1, 23, 31.
28. Sally Bowen, 'An unscripted bit-part player in a televised revolution' Financial Times, 28 Dec. 1996, p.2.
29. Ibid, pp.53-65.
30. Brett and McCallin (note 22) pp.43-4.
31. Human Rights Monitor 34 (Sept. 1996) pp.37-8.
32. Derbyshire and Derbyshire, 1996.
33. Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures 1993, p.23.
34. The others absolutist systems are Bhutan, Brunei, Swaziland, Bahrein, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, the Vatican and Tonga. - Derbyshire and Derbyshire, 1996.
35. Cf. R.D. Crelinsten and A.P. Schmid (eds), The Politics of Pain. Torturers and Their Masters (Boulder, CO: Westview 1995).
36. The Redress Trust, The Mission of Redress (London: The Redress Trust 1996) pp.11-12.
37. D. Bronkhorst, Prisma van de mensenrechten (Utrecht: Het Spectrum 1992) p.70; Amnesty International (International Secretariat), The Death Penalty. List of Abolitionist and Retentionist Countries (Oct. 1996) (London: AI 1996) (ACT 50/09/96) p.1. Of the total of 99 abolitionist countries 58 had abolished the death penalties for all crimes, 15 for ordinary crimes only and 26 countries were abolitionists.
38. D. Bronkhorst, Prisma van de mensenrechten (Utrecht: Het Spectrum 1992) p.70; Amnesty International (International Secretariat), The Death Penalty. List of Abolitionist and Retentionist Countries (Oct. 1996) (London: AI 1996) (ACT 50/09/96) p.1. Of the total of 99 abolitionist countries 58 had abolished the death penalties for all crimes, 15 for ordinary crimes only and 26 countries were abolitionists.
39. NRC-Handelsblad, 10 March 1996, p.6.
40. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 1996 (New York: Oxford University Press) p.24.
41. Sivard (note 1)p.30.
42. Lester R. Brown, Nicolas Lenssen and Hal Kane, Vital Signs 1995/1996. The Trends that Shape our Future (London: Earthscan 1996) p. 146.
43. Ibid., p. 18.
44. Bodo Harenberg (ed.), Harenberg Lexikon der Gegenwart '97 (Dortmunt: Harenberg Lexikon Verlag 1996) pp.191-2.
45. According to the United States' Central Intelligence Agency. For details, see A.P. Schmid (ed.). Whither Refugee? The Refugee Crisis: Problems and Solutions (Leiden: PIOOM 1996) p.6.
46. Rudiger Dingemann, Westermann Lexikon. Krisenherde der Welt. Konflikte und Kriege seit 1945 (Braunschweig: Westermann 1996) p.13.
47. Sivard(note 1) p.31; NRC Handelsblad, 9 Nov. 1996, pp.24-5. As India appears twice in the data base it does not add up to 19.
48. Sivard(note 1) p.31; NRC Handelsblad, 9 Nov. 1996, pp.24-5. As India appears twice in the data base it does not add up to 19.
49. In the Human Development Index the level of education is expressed as average years of schooling of adults and the literacy rate. Health is expressed as life expectancy at birth. Standard of living is expressed by purchasing power parity (PPP). Brigitte Hamm, Cross Human Rights Violations in 1994 (Duisburg: INEF 1996) p.7.
50. India and China were excluded from aggregate calculations because of the size of their populations and Gross Domestic Products. Cf. UNDP, Human Development Report 1996 (note 35) p. 132.
51. Ibid., pp. 135-7.
52. A.J. Jongman in cooperation with A.P. Schmid, 'Contemporary Conflicts. A Global Survey of High- and Lower-Intensity Conflicts and Serious Disputes', PIOOM Newsletter & Progress REPORT 7/1 (1995) pp.14-23.