Attitudes toward women, 1970-1995: A meta-analysis

Psychology of Women Quarterly

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 35-51

  Twenge, Jean M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031287406     PISSN: 03616843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00099.x     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. [Note: References with an asterisk were included in the meta analysis.] Ajdukovic, D., & Kljaic, S. (1984). Personal attributes, self-esteem, and attitude towards women: Some cross-cultural comparisons. Studia Psychologica, 26, 193-198.
2. The American almanac. (1995). New York: Warner.
3. *Bailey, W. T. (1993). College students'attitudes toward abortion. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 749-756.
4. *Bailey, W. T., Silver, N. C., & Oliver, K. A. (1990). Women's rights and roles: Attitudes among black and white students. Psychological Reports, 66, 1143-1146.
5. Bankart, B. B. (1985). The Japanese Attitudes Toward Women scale. Journal of Psychology, 119, 45-51.
6. *Basow, S. A., & Howe, K. G. (1980). Role-model influence: Effects of sex and sex-role atttitudes in college students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 4, 558-572.
7. *Baucom, D. H., & Sanders, B. S. (1978). Masculinity and femininity as factors in feminism. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 378-384.
8. *Bem, S. L. (1977). On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 196-205.
9. *Bierley, M. M. (1985). Prejudice toward contemporary outgroups as a generalized attitude. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 189-199.
10. *Borges, M. A., Levine, J. R., & Naylor, P. A. (1982). Self-ratings and projected ratings of sex role attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 6, 406-414.
11. *Brems, C., & Wagner, P. (1994). Blame of victim and perpetrator in rape vs. theft. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 363-374.
12. *Cash, T. F., Rissi, J., & Chapman, R. (1985). Not just another pretty face: Sex roles, locus of control, and cosmetics use. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 246-257.
13. Cherlin, A., & Walters, P. B. (1981). Trends in United States men's and women's sex-role attitudes: 1972 to 1978. American Sociological Review, 46, 453-460.
14. *Chia, R. C., Moore, J., & Lam, K. N. (1994). Cultural differences in gender role attitudes between Chinese and American students. Sex Roles, 31, 23-30.
15. *Clark, M. L. (1986). Predictors of scientific majors for black and white college students. Adolescence, 21, 205-213.
16. *Dambrot, F. H., Papp, M. E., & Whitmore, C. (1984). The sex-role attitudes of three generations of women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 469-473.
17. *Daugherty, C. G., & Dambrot, F. H. (1986). Reliability of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 46, 449-453.
18. *Doyle, J. A. (1975). Comparison of Kirkpatrick's and Spence and Helmreich's attitudes toward women scales. Psychological Reports, 37, 878.
19. Epstein, G. F., & Bronzaft, A. L. (1972). Female freshmen view their roles as women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 34, 671-672.
20. *Etaugh, C. (1975). Stability of college students' attitudes toward women during one school year. Psychological Reports, 36, 125-126.
21. *Etaugh, C., & Bowen, L. (1976). Attitudes toward women: Comparison of enrolled and nonenrolled college students. Psychological Reports, 38, 229-230.
22. *Etaugh, C., & Spiller, B. (1989). Attitudes toward women: Comparison of traditional-aged and older college students. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 41-46.
23. Faludi, S. (1991). Backlash: The undeclared war against American women. New York: Crown.
24. *Foss, C. J., & Slaney, R. B. (1986). Increasing nontraditional career choices in women: Relation of attitudes toward women and responses to a career intervention. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 28, 191-202.
25. *Gackenbach, J. I. (1978). A perceptual defense approach to the study of gender, sex-related traits, stereotypes, and attitudes. Journal of Personality, 46, 645-676.
26. *Gackenbach, J. I., & Averbach, S. M. (1985). Sex-role attitudes and perceptual learning. Journal of Social Psychology, 125, 233-243.
27. *Gerdes, E. P., & Kelman, J. H. (1981). Sex discrimination: Effects of sex-role incongruence, evaluator sex, and stereotypes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 2, 219-226.
28. Gergen, K. J. (1973). Social psychology as history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 309-320.
29. *Greeley, A. T. (1991). Patterns of college women's development: A cluster analysis approach. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 516-524.
30. Hedges, L. V., & Becker, B. J. (1986). Statistical methods in the meta-analysis of research in gender differences. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 14-50). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
31. *Helmreich, R. L., Spence, J. T., & Gibson, R. H. (1982). Sex role attitudes: 1972-1980. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 656-663.
32. Herzog, A. R., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (1983). Paid work, child care, and housework: A national survey of high school seniors' preferences for sharing responsibilities between husband and wife. Sex Roles, 9, 109-134.
33. Higher Education Research Institute. (1993). The American freshman: National norms. Los Angeles: UCLA Press.
34. *Hjelle, L. A., & Butterfield, R. (1974). Self-actualization and women's attitudes toward their roles in comtemporary society. Journal of Psychology, 87, 225-230.
35. Hochschild, A. R. (1989). The second shift. New York: Avon.
36. Hurlbert, J. S. (1988). The Southern region: A test of the hypothesis of cultural distinctiveness. Sociological Quarterly, 30, 245-266.
37. Hyde, J. S. (1986). Gender differences in aggression. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
38. *Jacobson, M. B., & Insko, W. R. (1984). On the relationship between feminism and the use of "Ms." Psychological Reports, 54, 388-390.
39. *Johnson, M. E., & Brems, C. (1991). Counselor sex and attitudes toward women's roles: Implications of counselor/client similarity for the counseling relationship. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 13, 131-143.
40. *Kelley, K. (1985). The effects of sexual and/or aggressive film exposure on helping, hostility, and attitudes about the sexes. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 472-483.
41. Kiecolt, K. J., & Acock, A. C. (1988). The long-term effects of family structure on gender-role attitudes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 709-717.
42. *Koblinsky, S. A., & Palmeter, J. G. (1984). Sex-role orientation, mother's expression of affection toward spouse, and college women's attitudes toward sexual behaviors. Journal of Sex Research, 20, 32-43.
43. Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. F. (1989). Aging and susceptibility to attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 416-425.
44. *Kyes, K. B. (1994). Comparison of Indonesian and American college students' attitudes toward homosexuality. Psychological Reports, 74, 227-237.
45. *Levine, R. V., & West, L. (1979). Attitudes toward women in the United States and Brazil. Journal of Social Psychology, 108, 265-266.
46. Lunneborg, P. W. (1974). Validity of the Attitudes Toward Women scale. Psychological Reports, 34, 1281-1282.
47. *Malovich, N. J., & Stake, J. E. (1990). Sexual harassment on campus: Individual differences in attitudes and beliefs. Psychological Reports, 14, 63-81.
48. *Matula, K. E., Huston, T. L., Grotevant, H. D., & Zammutt, A. (1992). Identity and dating commitment among women and men in college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 339-356.
49. *McKinney, K. (1987). Age and gender differences in college students' attitudes toward women: A replication and extension. Sex Roles, 17, 353-358.
50. *Mezydlo, L. S., & Betz, N. E. (1980). Perceptions of ideal sex roles as a function of sex and feminist orientation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 27, 282-285.
51. *Moore, M. A., & Gilroy, F. D. (1986). Is dissonance a factor in the relationship between sex-role orientation and attitudes towards women's roles? Psychological Reports, 59, 859-865.
52. *Mori, L., Bernat, J. A., Glenn, P. A., Selle, L. L., & Zarate, M. G. (1995). Attitudes toward rape: Gender and ethnic differences across Asian and Caucasian college students. Sex Roles, 32, 457-467.
53. *Muehlenhard, C. L., Friedman, D. E., & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 3, 297-310.
54. *Muehlenhard, C. L., & Miller, E. N. (1988). Traditional and non-traditional men's responses to women's dating initiation. Behavior Modification, 12, 385-403.
55. *Muehlenhard, C. L., & Scardino, T. J. (1985). What will he think? Men's impressions of women who initiate dates and achieve academically. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 560-569.
56. Niemi, R. G., Mueller, J., & Smith, T. W. (1989). Trends in public opinion: A compendium of survey data. New York: Greenwood Press.
57. *Newman, B. S. (1989). The relative importance of gender role attitudes to male and female attitudes toward lesbians. Sex Roles, 21, 451-465.
58. *Orlofsky, J. L. (1981). Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the Sex Role Behavior Scale-1: A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 927-940.
59. *Orlofsky, J. L., & O'Heron, C. A. (1987). Stereotypic and non-stereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations: Implications for personal adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1034-1042.
60. Parelius, A. P. (1975). Emerging sex-role attitudes, expectations, and strains among college women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 40, 146-153.
61. Parry, G. (1983). A British version of the Attitudes Toward Women scale (AWS-B). British Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 261-263.
62. *Phillips, S. D., & Johnston, S. L. (1985). Attitudes toward work roles for women. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26, 334-338.
63. Powell, B., & Steelman, L. C. (1982). Testing an undertested comparison: Maternal effects on sons' and daughters' attitudes toward women in the labor force. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 349-355.
64. *Powell, S. R., & Yanico, B. J. (1991). A multimethod attitude study about women's roles and issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 97-101.
65. Ransford, H. E., & Miller, J. (1983). Race, sex, and feminist outlooks. American Sociological Review, 48, 46-59.
66. Rice, T. W., & Coates, D. L. (1995). Gender role attitudes in the Southern United States. Gender and Society, 9, 744-756.
67. *Robinson, E. A., & Follingstad, D. R. (1985). Development and validation of a behavioral sex-role inventory. Sex Roles, 13, 691-713.
68. *Ryckman, R. M., Kaczor, L. M., & Thornton, W. (1992). Traditional and non-traditional women's attributions of responsibility to physically resistive and nonresistive rape victims. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1453-1463.
69. Schaninger, C. M., & Buss, W. C. (1986). The relationship of sex-role norms to couple and parental demographics. Sex Roles, 15, 77-94.
70. *Simon, A. (1995). Some correlates of individuals' attitudes toward lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 29, 89-103.
71. *Slaney, R. B., & Caballero, M. (1983). Changing male attitudes toward women's career development: An exploratory study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 126-129.
72. *Slevin, K. F., & Wingrove, C. R. (1983). Real vs. perceived differences in how three intra-family generations of women view their roles in society. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 56, 959-970.
73. *Smith, A. D., Resick, P. A. , & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1980). Relationships among gender, sex-role attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors. Psychological Reports, 46, 359-367.
74. *Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1972a). The Attitudes Toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure attitudes toward the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 2, 667-668.
75. *Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1972b). Who likes competent women? Competence, sex-role congruence of interests, and subjects' attitudes toward women as determinants of interpersonal attraction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2, 197-213.
76. *Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
77. *Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1979a). Comparison of masculine and feminine personality attributes and sex-role attitudes across age groups. Developmental Psychology, 15, 583-584.
78. *Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1979b). Psychological androgyny and sex-role flexibility: A test of two hypotheses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1631-1644.
79. *Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 219-220.
80. *Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex-role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29-39.
81. *Stein, S. L., & Weston, L. C. (1976). Attitudes toward women among female college students. Sex Roles, 2, 199-202.
82. *Stein, S. L., & Weston, L. C. (1982). College women's attitudes toward women and identity achievement. Adolescence, 68, 895-899.
83. *St. Lawrence, J. S., & Joyner, D. J. (1991). The effects of sexually violent rock music on males' acceptance of violence against women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 49-63.
84. Stewart, A. J., & Healy, J. M. (1989). Linking individual development and social changes. American Psychologist, 44, 30-42.
85. *Sugawara, A. I., Koval, J. E., & Cate, R. M. (1990). Sibling constellation and attitudes toward women among college students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 151, 541-549.
86. Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.
87. Thornton, A., Alwin, D. F., & Camburn, D. (1983). Causes and consequences of sex-role attitudes and attitude change. American Sociological Review, 48, 211-227.
88. Thornton, A., & Freedman, D. (1979). Changes in the sex role attitudes of women, 1962-1977: Evidence from a panel study. American Sociological Review, 44, 831-842.
89. *Tipton, R. M., Bailey, K. G., & Obenchain, J. P. (1975). Invasion of males' personal space by feminists and non-feminists. Psychological Reports, 37, 99-102.
90. Tomeh, A. K. (1978). Sex-role orientation: An analysis of structural and attitudinal predictors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 42, 341-354.
91. Vogel, S. R., Broverman, I. K., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosencrantz, P. S. (1970). Maternal employment and perception of sex roles among college students. Developmental Psychology, 3, 384-391.
92. Weeks, M. O., & Botkin, D. R. (1987). A longitudinal study of the marriage role expectations of college women: 1961-1984. Sex Role, 17, 49-58.
93. Weeks, M. O., & Gage, B. A. (1984). A comparison of the marriage-role expectations of college women enrolled in a functional marriage course in 1961, 1972, and 1978. Sex Roles, 11, 377-388.
94. *Weidner, G., & Grifitt, W. (1983). Rape: A sexual stigma? Journal of Personality, 51, 152-166.
95. *Weidner, G., & Grifitt, W. (1984). Abortion as a stigma: In the eyes of the beholder. Journal of Research in Personality, 18, 359-371.
96. *Whitley, B. E. (1987). The relationship of sex-role orientation to heterosexuals' attitudes toward homosexuals. Sex Roles, 17, 103-113.
97. Willetts-Bloom, M. C., & Nock, S. L. (1994). The influence of maternal employment on gender role attitudes of men and women. Sex Roles, 30, 371-389.
98. Wolf, F. M. (1986). Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Beverly Hills: Sage.
99. *Yanico, B. J. (1981). Sex-role self-concept and attitudes related to occupational daydreams and future fantasies of college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 19, 290-301.
100. *Zuckerman, D. M. (1981). Family background, sex-role attitudes, and life goals of technical college and university students. Sex Roles, 7, 1109-1126.