The cultural identities of a European State

Politics and Society

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 277-302

  Laitin, David D ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031286831     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329297025003002     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Abram De Swaan, "The Evolving European Language System: A Theory of Communication Potential and Language Competition," International Political Science Review 14, no. 3 (1993): 241-55.
2. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983).
3. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1961), 14.
4. On the German romantics, see, for example, Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Linguistic Variability and Intellectual Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chap. 1; Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question (New York: International Publishers, 1942); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), esp. chap. 6; and Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1953).
5. On the German romantics, see, for example, Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Linguistic Variability and Intellectual Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chap. 1; Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question (New York: International Publishers, 1942); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), esp. chap. 6; and Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1953).
6. On the German romantics, see, for example, Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Linguistic Variability and Intellectual Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chap. 1; Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question (New York: International Publishers, 1942); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), esp. chap. 6; and Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1953).
7. On the German romantics, see, for example, Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Linguistic Variability and Intellectual Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chap. 1; Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question (New York: International Publishers, 1942); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), esp. chap. 6; and Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1953).
8. Peter Katzenstein, "Hare and Tortoise: The Race toward Integration," International Organization 25, no. 2 (1971): 290-95; Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958); Karl W. Deutsch, Sidney A. Burrell, Robert A. Kann, Maurice Lee, Jr., Martin Lichterman, Raymond E. Lindgren, Francis L. Loewenheim, and Richard W. Van Wagenen, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); John Ruggie, "Collective Goods and Future International Collaboration," American Political Science Review, 66, no. 3 (1972): 874-93.
9. Peter Katzenstein, "Hare and Tortoise: The Race toward Integration," International Organization 25, no. 2 (1971): 290-95; Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958); Karl W. Deutsch, Sidney A. Burrell, Robert A. Kann, Maurice Lee, Jr., Martin Lichterman, Raymond E. Lindgren, Francis L. Loewenheim, and Richard W. Van Wagenen, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); John Ruggie, "Collective Goods and Future International Collaboration," American Political Science Review, 66, no. 3 (1972): 874-93.
10. Peter Katzenstein, "Hare and Tortoise: The Race toward Integration," International Organization 25, no. 2 (1971): 290-95; Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958); Karl W. Deutsch, Sidney A. Burrell, Robert A. Kann, Maurice Lee, Jr., Martin Lichterman, Raymond E. Lindgren, Francis L. Loewenheim, and Richard W. Van Wagenen, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); John Ruggie, "Collective Goods and Future International Collaboration," American Political Science Review, 66, no. 3 (1972): 874-93.
11. Peter Katzenstein, "Hare and Tortoise: The Race toward Integration," International Organization 25, no. 2 (1971): 290-95; Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958); Karl W. Deutsch, Sidney A. Burrell, Robert A. Kann, Maurice Lee, Jr., Martin Lichterman, Raymond E. Lindgren, Francis L. Loewenheim, and Richard W. Van Wagenen, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); John Ruggie, "Collective Goods and Future International Collaboration," American Political Science Review, 66, no. 3 (1972): 874-93.
12. Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (Cambridge, UK: Canto, 1990).
13. Steven Greenhouse, "In Europe, a Boom in M.B.A.'s," The New York Times (29 May 1991).
14. John Rockwell, "French Strike a Blow for la Gloire in Their Film Industry's Oscars," The New York Times (18 January 1993).
15. Max Weber, Economy and Society, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 71 (economic rationalization), 655, 809-38 (legal rationalization), 1108 (educational rationalization).
16. See the discussion of language, the nation, and the state in Max Weber, "The Nation," in H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 177-79.
17. The classic statement of this position is that of Deutsch, Nationalism. For a powerful empirical demonstration of this point, see Susan Watkins, From Provinces into Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991).
18. This position is consistent with Deutsch's theories in Nationalism. See Cyril Black, The Dynamics of Modernization (New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
19. J. E. Schwartzberg, "Factors in the Linguistic Reorganization of Indian States," in P. Wallace, ed., Region and Nation in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985).
20. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976).
21. Anderson, Imagined Communities, chap. 5.
22. B. G. Kher, Report of the Official Language Commission (New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1956), 11.
23. Robert Price, Society and Bureaucracy in Contemporary Ghana (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
24. Politicians and bureaucrats can well be the same people or from the same family. Nehru, for example, had three close relatives in the Indian Civil Service. See David Potter, India's Political Administration (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1986), 129. When this occurs, we can say the individual or family is cross-pressured, as the theory here is positing "roles" rather than individuals.
25. K. L. Gandhi, The Problem of Official Language in India (New Delhi: Arya Book Depot, 1984), chap. 3.
26. Game theorists would be reluctant to call the outcome described as an equilibrium. Through backward induction, they could point out, the Congress leaders should have known they would have lost to the bureaucrats and sought to rationalize English rather than Hindi. The reason that all parties are satisfied lies in the phenomenon of "sour grapes." See Jon Elster, Sour Grapes (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Indian politicians now glorify the 3 ± 1 outcome as if it were their original goal and consistent with India's historical diversity.
27. Charles Ferguson, "Diglossia," Word 15 (1959): 325-40.
28. This model is specified more fully in David D. Laitin, "Language Policy and Political Strategy in India," Policy Sciences 23-24 (1989): 428-30.
29. Commission of the European Communities, Eurobarometer, no. 28 (December): 78.
30. De Swaan, "The Evolving European Language System," 248-49. Although De Swaan does not address this issue, clearly the economic, military, political, and cultural dominance of the United States - and not the mere entry of the United Kingdom into the EC - explains the power of English as the continental lingua franca.
31. "Dumbstruck," The Economist (14 January 1995): 45.
32. These data are from a survey run by Jerry Hough and David Laitin under a National Science Foundation grant (SES9212568), "Nationality and Politics: The Dismemberment of the Soviet Union." Data from that project are deposited in the archive of the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, University of Michigan.
33. Florian Coulmas, ed., A Language Policy for the European Community: Prospects and Quandaries (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991), 24-25. This figure must surely reflect a very broad understanding of what it means to defend French. Yet, the fact that France does spend considerable sums of money on this activity is without dispute.
34. Ulrich Ammon, "The Status of German and Other Languages in the European Community," in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 241-54.
35. Coulmas, A Language Policy, 13.
36. Ibid., 26-27.
37. See Marlise Simons, "A Reborn Provençal Heralds Revival of Regional Tongues," New York Times (3 May 1993): 1, 6 (national edition). In her entertaining report, she correctly points to the energetically administered programs within the regions of France compelling students to learn "their" language. But when she writes that "the [central] government has concluded that France's regional languages enrich the national heritage rather than pose a threat to the country's identity," she underemphasizes the continuing state interest in the promotion of French.
38. Bruno De Witte, "The Impact of European Community Rules on Linguistic Policies of the Member States," in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 174-75.
39. Ibid., 173.
40. Ibid., 167.
41. Bob Jessop, "Post-Fordism and the State," in Ash Amin, ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (London; Blackwell, 1994).
42. Coulmas, A Language Policy, 14-16.
43. Elisabetta Zuanelli, "Italian in the European Community: An Educational Perspective on the National Language and New Language Minorities," in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 293.
44. Claude du Granrut, Europe: Le Temps des Régions (Paris: Librairie Générale du Droit et de la Jurisprudence, 1994).
45. Ibid., 59.
46. Some data for this paragraph are from the Commission of the European Communities, Linguistic Minorities in Countries Belonging to the European Community (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1986). The data do not cover Spain, Portugal, or Greece.
47. See the resolution of the European Parliament, "On Languages in the Community and the Situation of Catalan," A3-0169/90. The Catalans hardly got what they asked for in this resolution, but the call for inter alia "the publication in Catalan of the [European] Community's treaties and basic texts" was considered by Catalans as a foot in the door.
48. Harold Koch, "Legal Aspects of a Language Policy for the European Communities: Language Risks, Equal Opportunities, and Legislating a Language," in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 174-75.
49. Andrée Tabouret-Keller, "Factors of Constraints and Freedom in Setting a Language Policy for the European Community: A Sociolinguistic Approach," in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 47.
50. Simons, "A Reborn Provençal."
51. David Laitin and Guadalupe Rodríguez, "Language, Ideology and the Press in Catalonia," American Anthropologist 94, no. 1 (1992): 9-30.
52. "La realitat autonòmica," Avui (14 June 1985).
53. "Catalunya i el futur europeu," Avui (6 June 1985).
54. "Un primer pas," Avui (19 June 1985).
55. "L'Europa del 92: Un punt de partida," Diari (30 June 1988).
56. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, "Political Identities and Electoral Sequences: Spain, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia," Daedalus 121 (1992): 128.
57. Keating suggests that among the Scottish and Basques, revivalists are connecting regional autonomy to the European project in ways similar to how I have portrayed the Catalans, although he suggests the Catalans are less inclined in this direction than the Scots and Basques. See Michael Keating, "The Continental Meso: Regions in the European Community," in L. J. Sharpe, ed., The Rise of Meso Government in Europe (London: Sage, 1993), 309.
58. Cited in Rudolf Wildenmann, ed., Staatswerdung Europas? Optionen für eine Europäische Union (Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos, 1991), 19-41.
59. Du Granrut, Europe, 198-200.
60. See especially Fritz W. Scharpf, "Kann es in Europa eine Stabile föderale Balance geben?" in Wildenmann, ed., Staatswerdung, 415-29.
61. Grin presents an interesting but unconvincing economic logic to the success for some of Europe's regional languages, having to do with trends in intra-European trade. See François Grin, "European Economic Integration and the Fate of Lesser-Used Languages," Language Problems and Language Planning 17, no. 2 (1993): 107.
62. Coulmas, A Language Policy, 22-26.
63. Koch, "Legal Aspects," 147 ff.
64. See the Parliamentary admonitions demanding equality of all languages in parliamentary affairs in Coulmas, A Language Policy, 7.
65. Keating, "The Continental Meso," 303.
66. Data for this paragraph are from Enid Lakeman, "Elections to the European Parliament, 1989," Parliamentary Affairs 43, no. 1 (1990): 77-89; and The Times (London), Guide to the European Parliament (London: The Times, 1989).
67. Data for this paragraph are from Enid Lakeman, "Elections to the European Parliament, 1989," Parliamentary Affairs 43, no. 1 (1990): 77-89; and The Times (London), Guide to the European Parliament (London: The Times, 1989).
68. Christopher Ansell, Keith Darden, and Craig Parsons, "Dual Networks in the European Union" (unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, n.d.); Du Granrut, Europe, 185-86.
69. Christopher Ansell, Keith Darden, and Craig Parsons, "Dual Networks in the European Union" (unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, n.d.); Du Granrut, Europe, 185-86.
70. Alexander Loit, "Nation-Building in the Baltic Countries, 1850-1918," in Justo G. Beramendi, Ramón Máiz, and Xosé Núñez, eds., Nationalism in Europe: Past and Present (Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 1994), 479-504.
71. David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, forthcoming).
72. "Evropu my uvazhili, teper' by uvazhit' evoi narod," Narvskaia Gazeta (29 May 1993).
73. "Telivizionnoe obrashchenie prezidenta respubliki," Narvskaia Gazeta (13 July 1993).
74. These two sources of separatist movements in regard to the former Soviet Union are discussed in David D. Laitin, "The National Uprisings in the Soviet Union," World Politics 44, no. 1 (1991): 139-77.