'Cultural imperialism' and protestant missionary enterprise, 1780-1914

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 367-391

  Porter, Andrew ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031286366     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539708583005     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Greg Cuthbertson, 'The English-speaking Churches and Colonialism', in Charles Villa-Vicencio (ed.), Theology and Violence: The South African Debate (Johannesburg, 1987), 16-17.
2. Arthur Schlesinger, Jnr., 'The Missionary Enterprise and Theories of Imperialism', in John K. Fairbank (ed.), The Missionary Enterprise in China and America (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 360.
3. For example, by T.O. Ranger in K.H.Petersen (ed.), Religion, Development and African Identity (Uppsala, 1987), 145-62.
4. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (London, 1993), 128, 131.
5. Ibid., 131-2.
6. Ibid., 129-33.
7. A.F.Walls, 'The nineteenth century missionary as scholar', in Nils E. Bloch-Hoell (ed.), Misjonskall og forskerglede. Festskrift til Professor Olav Guttorm Myklebust (Oslo, 1975) 209-21.
8. The Works of the Reverend Sydney Smith (London, 1839), 136-7.
9. Roland Oliver, Sir Harry Johnston and the Scramble for Africa (London, 1957), 182.
10. Wm.R.Hutchison, 'A Moral Equivalent for Imperialism: Americans and the Promotion of "Christian Civilization", 1880-1910', in Torben Christensen and W.R. Hutchison (eds.), Missionary Ideologies in the Imperialist Era 1880-1920 (Copenhagen, 1982), 168-9. The argument was developed over a much longer period in Hutchison's Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago and London, 1987).
11. Wm.R.Hutchison, 'A Moral Equivalent for Imperialism: Americans and the Promotion of "Christian Civilization", 1880-1910', in Torben Christensen and W.R. Hutchison (eds.), Missionary Ideologies in the Imperialist Era 1880-1920 (Copenhagen, 1982), 168-9. The argument was developed over a much longer period in Hutchison's Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago and London, 1987).
12. Jean and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago, 1991), 8, 88.
13. Ibid., 11.
14. Ibid., 17.
15. Ibid., 18.
16. Ibid., 310-11.
17. Brian Stanley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Leicester, 1990), 24.
18. Ibid., 171.
19. Ibid., 184.
20. Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington, Indiana, 1991), 51, 62.
21. For other controversial aspects and questions raised by the Comaroffs' work, see the review essays by Crais, De Kock, Stuart, and De Bruyn, South African Historical Journal, 31 (1994), 273-309.
22. For a basic introduction to many of the current debates, see Andrew Porter, European Imperialism, 1860-1914 (London, 1994).
23. Said, Culture and Imperialism, xii-xiii; Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, esp. 19-27.
24. Said, Culture and Imperialism, xii-xiii; Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, esp. 19-27.
25. Schlesinger, 'The Missionary Enterprise', 365-6.
26. Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches. Discourse on a Silent Land: Marquesas 1774-1880 (Honolulu, 1980: rep. Chicago), 288.
27. Henry Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (Ringwood, Victoria, 1982). For a survey of recent directions in Aboriginal research, Bain Attwood, 'Aboriginal History', Australian Journal of Politics and History, 41 (1995), 33-47.
28. Henry Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (Ringwood, Victoria, 1982). For a survey of recent directions in Aboriginal research, Bain Attwood, 'Aboriginal History', Australian Journal of Politics and History, 41 (1995), 33-47.
29. John Webster Grant, Moon of Wintertime. Missionaries and the Indians of Canada in Encounter since 1534 (Toronto, 1984), 86-95; Robin E. Close, 'Literacy on the Frontier: Native Converts and the Political development of indigenous communities in Upper Canada and South Africa, 1800-1840', North Atlantic Missiology Project. Position Paper Number 1 (Cambridge, 1996).
30. John Webster Grant, Moon of Wintertime. Missionaries and the Indians of Canada in Encounter since 1534 (Toronto, 1984), 86-95; Robin E. Close, 'Literacy on the Frontier: Native Converts and the Political development of indigenous communities in Upper Canada and South Africa, 1800-1840', North Atlantic Missiology Project. Position Paper Number 1 (Cambridge, 1996).
31. Peggy Brock, Outback Ghettos: Aborigines, Institutionalisation and Survival (Cambridge, 1993).
32. See, for example, Brian Stanley, 'Nineteenth-century Liberation Theology: Nonconformist Missionaries and Imperialism', Baptist Quarterly, 32, 1 (1987), 5-18.
33. For example the China Inland Mission, the Regions Beyond Missionary Union, the Livingstone Inland Mission, and the Sudan Interior Mission might be compared with the Universities Mission to Central Africa or the Oxford and Cambridge missions to Calcutta and Delhi.
34. P.J. Marshall and Glyndwr Williams, The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment (London, 1982).
35. For Haweis, The Evangelical Magazine, July 1795, 261-70; instructions quoted in Jonathon J. Bonk, 'All Things to All Men': Protestant Missionary Identification in Theory and Practice, 1860-1910' (Ph.D. thesis, Aberdeen, 1984), 19-20.
36. For Haweis, The Evangelical Magazine, July 1795, 261-70; instructions quoted in Jonathon J. Bonk, 'All Things to All Men': Protestant Missionary Identification in Theory and Practice, 1860-1910' (Ph.D. thesis, Aberdeen, 1984), 19-20.
37. H. Maynard Smith, Frank, Bishop of Zanzibar: The life of Frank Weston, D.D. 1871-1924 (London, 1926), 25-26, 109.
38. For this point and a discusion of its consequences, see, for example, Dening, Islands and Beaches, ch.5, esp. 199-204.
39. For the linguistic work, see P.E.H. Hair, 'Niger Languages and Sierra Leonean Missionary Linguists, 1840-1930', Bulletin for the Society for African Church History, 2, 2 (1966), 127-38 ; and idem, The Early Study of Nigerian Languages: Essays and Bibliographies (Cambridge, 1967).
40. For the linguistic work, see P.E.H. Hair, 'Niger Languages and Sierra Leonean Missionary Linguists, 1840-1930', Bulletin for the Society for African Church History, 2, 2 (1966), 127-38 ; and idem, The Early Study of Nigerian Languages: Essays and Bibliographies (Cambridge, 1967).
41. R. Elphick, 'Africans and the Christian Campaign in Southern Africa', in Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (eds.), The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 270-307; Andrew Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen, 1986).
42. R. Elphick, 'Africans and the Christian Campaign in Southern Africa', in Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (eds.), The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981), 270-307; Andrew Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen, 1986).
43. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, ch.6, esp. 214-29.
44. For the problems of interpreters, Robert Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa (London, 1842), 291-5.
45. Bernard S. Cohn, 'The Command of Language and the Language of Command', in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies IV (Delhi, 1985), 276-329.
46. Dening, Islands and Beaches, 193-4, 204; W. Harrison Daniel, 'Patterns in Mission Preaching: The Representation of the Christian Message and Efik Response in the Scottish Calabar Mission, Nigeria, 1846-1900', (Ph.D. thesis, Edinburgh, 1993). For recent contributions to the general debate see n.41 below.
47. Dening, Islands and Beaches, 193-4, 204; W. Harrison Daniel, 'Patterns in Mission Preaching: The Representation of the Christian Message and Efik Response in the Scottish Calabar Mission, Nigeria, 1846-1900', (Ph.D. thesis, Edinburgh, 1993). For recent contributions to the general debate see n.41 below.
48. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, 217-18. The Comaroffs do not seem to appreciate the extent to which acknowledgement of the Tswana contribution or the limits to that of the missionaries weakens any general insistence on missionary hegemony.
49. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, New York, 1989), esp. ch.3; and Philip C. Stine (ed.), Bible Translation and the Spread of the Church: The Last Two Hundred Years (Leiden, 1990). See also Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures (1982; English translation, Cambridge and Paris, 1987).
50. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, New York, 1989), esp. ch.3; and Philip C. Stine (ed.), Bible Translation and the Spread of the Church: The Last Two Hundred Years (Leiden, 1990). See also Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures (1982; English translation, Cambridge and Paris, 1987).
51. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, New York, 1989), esp. ch.3; and Philip C. Stine (ed.), Bible Translation and the Spread of the Church: The Last Two Hundred Years (Leiden, 1990). See also Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures (1982; English translation, Cambridge and Paris, 1987).
52. Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (London, 1995).
53. See, for instance, Andrew Porter, 'Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1780-1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (1992), 15-31; idem, 'War, Colonialism and the British Experience: The Redefinition of Christian Missionary Policy, 1938-1952', Kirkliche Zeitgeschichte, 12, 3 (1992), 269-88.
54. See, for instance, Andrew Porter, 'Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1780-1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (1992), 15-31; idem, 'War, Colonialism and the British Experience: The Redefinition of Christian Missionary Policy, 1938-1952', Kirkliche Zeitgeschichte, 12, 3 (1992), 269-88.
55. Jeff Guy, The Heretic: A Study of the Life of John William Colenso, 1814-1883 (Johannesburg, 1983); Norman Etherington, Preachers, Peasants and Politics in Southeast Africa, 1835-1880 (London, 1978).
56. Jeff Guy, The Heretic: A Study of the Life of John William Colenso, 1814-1883 (Johannesburg, 1983); Norman Etherington, Preachers, Peasants and Politics in Southeast Africa, 1835-1880 (London, 1978).
57. Hans Cnattingius, Bishops and Societies: A Study of Anglican Colonial and Missionary Expansion, 1698-1850 (London, 1952); T.E. Yates, Venn and Victorian Bishops Abroad: The Missionary Policies of Henry Venn and the Repercussions upon the Anglican Episcopate of the Colonial Period, 1841-1872 (Uppsala, 1978); Andrew Porter, '"Christianity and Commerce": The Rise and Fall of a Nineteenth-Century Missionary Slogan', Historical Journal, 28, 3 (1985), 597-621; idem, 'The Hausa Association: Sir George Goldie, the Bishop of Dover and the Niger in the 1890s', JICH, 7, 2 (1979), 149-79.
58. Hans Cnattingius, Bishops and Societies: A Study of Anglican Colonial and Missionary Expansion, 1698-1850 (London, 1952); T.E. Yates, Venn and Victorian Bishops Abroad: The Missionary Policies of Henry Venn and the Repercussions upon the Anglican Episcopate of the Colonial Period, 1841-1872 (Uppsala, 1978); Andrew Porter, '"Christianity and Commerce": The Rise and Fall of a Nineteenth-Century Missionary Slogan', Historical Journal, 28, 3 (1985), 597-621; idem, 'The Hausa Association: Sir George Goldie, the Bishop of Dover and the Niger in the 1890s', JICH, 7, 2 (1979), 149-79.
59. Hans Cnattingius, Bishops and Societies: A Study of Anglican Colonial and Missionary Expansion, 1698-1850 (London, 1952); T.E. Yates, Venn and Victorian Bishops Abroad: The Missionary Policies of Henry Venn and the Repercussions upon the Anglican Episcopate of the Colonial Period, 1841-1872 (Uppsala, 1978); Andrew Porter, '"Christianity and Commerce": The Rise and Fall of a Nineteenth-Century Missionary Slogan', Historical Journal, 28, 3 (1985), 597-621; idem, 'The Hausa Association: Sir George Goldie, the Bishop of Dover and the Niger in the 1890s', JICH, 7, 2 (1979), 149-79.
60. Hans Cnattingius, Bishops and Societies: A Study of Anglican Colonial and Missionary Expansion, 1698-1850 (London, 1952); T.E. Yates, Venn and Victorian Bishops Abroad: The Missionary Policies of Henry Venn and the Repercussions upon the Anglican Episcopate of the Colonial Period, 1841-1872 (Uppsala, 1978); Andrew Porter, '"Christianity and Commerce": The Rise and Fall of a Nineteenth-Century Missionary Slogan', Historical Journal, 28, 3 (1985), 597-621; idem, 'The Hausa Association: Sir George Goldie, the Bishop of Dover and the Niger in the 1890s', JICH, 7, 2 (1979), 149-79.
61. W.R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening (Cambridge, 1992); D.W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989); Andrew Porter, 'Cambridge, Keswick and Late-Nineteenth-Century Attitudes to Africa', JICH, 5, 1 (1976), 23-46; idem, 'Evangelical Enthusiasm, Missionary Motivation and West Africa in the Late Nineteenth Century: The career of G.W. Brooke', JICH, 6, 1 (1977), 5-34.
62. W.R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening (Cambridge, 1992); D.W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989); Andrew Porter, 'Cambridge, Keswick and Late-Nineteenth-Century Attitudes to Africa', JICH, 5, 1 (1976), 23-46; idem, 'Evangelical Enthusiasm, Missionary Motivation and West Africa in the Late Nineteenth Century: The career of G.W. Brooke', JICH, 6, 1 (1977), 5-34.
63. W.R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening (Cambridge, 1992); D.W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989); Andrew Porter, 'Cambridge, Keswick and Late-Nineteenth-Century Attitudes to Africa', JICH, 5, 1 (1976), 23-46; idem, 'Evangelical Enthusiasm, Missionary Motivation and West Africa in the Late Nineteenth Century: The career of G.W. Brooke', JICH, 6, 1 (1977), 5-34.
64. W.R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening (Cambridge, 1992); D.W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989); Andrew Porter, 'Cambridge, Keswick and Late-Nineteenth-Century Attitudes to Africa', JICH, 5, 1 (1976), 23-46; idem, 'Evangelical Enthusiasm, Missionary Motivation and West Africa in the Late Nineteenth Century: The career of G.W. Brooke', JICH, 6, 1 (1977), 5-34.
65. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening, 241.
66. See the doctoral dissertation being completed by John Mason, of King's College, London.
67. J.R. Hertzler, 'English Baptists Interpret Continental Mennonites in the Early Nineteenth Century', Mennonite Quarterly Review, LIV,1 (1980), 42-52; the American Board Archives, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Series 'Miscellaneous Foreign Correspondence', contains a wealth of material on these North Atlantic themes.
68. J.R. Hertzler, 'English Baptists Interpret Continental Mennonites in the Early Nineteenth Century', Mennonite Quarterly Review, LIV,1 (1980), 42-52; the American Board Archives, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Series 'Miscellaneous Foreign Correspondence', contains a wealth of material on these North Atlantic themes.
69. There is a wealth of material on these negotiations in government papers at the Public Record Office, London, and the Archives of the International Missionary Council and Council of British Missionary Societies in Geneva.
70. E.A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria 1842-1914 (London, 1966), 9.
71. Gold Coast Census Report (1948).
72. See, for example, G.A. Oddie, Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms 1850-1900 (Delhi, 1979); idem, Hindu and Christian in South-East India (London, 1991); Dick Kooiman, 'The Gospel of Coffee: Mission, Education and Employment in Travancore (19th century)', in Kooiman, Otto van den Muijzenberg, Peter van der Veer (eds.), Conversion, Competition and Conflict: Essays on the Role of Religion in Asia (Amsterdam, 1984), 185-214; idem, 'Mass Movement, Famine and Epidemic: A Study in Interrelationship', Indian Church History Review, 22, 2 (1988), 109-25.
73. See, for example, G.A. Oddie, Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms 1850-1900 (Delhi, 1979); idem, Hindu and Christian in South-East India (London, 1991); Dick Kooiman, 'The Gospel of Coffee: Mission, Education and Employment in Travancore (19th century)', in Kooiman, Otto van den Muijzenberg, Peter van der Veer (eds.), Conversion, Competition and Conflict: Essays on the Role of Religion in Asia (Amsterdam, 1984), 185-214; idem, 'Mass Movement, Famine and Epidemic: A Study in Interrelationship', Indian Church History Review, 22, 2 (1988), 109-25.
74. See, for example, G.A. Oddie, Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms 1850-1900 (Delhi, 1979); idem, Hindu and Christian in South-East India (London, 1991); Dick Kooiman, 'The Gospel of Coffee: Mission, Education and Employment in Travancore (19th century)', in Kooiman, Otto van den Muijzenberg, Peter van der Veer (eds.), Conversion, Competition and Conflict: Essays on the Role of Religion in Asia (Amsterdam, 1984), 185-214; idem, 'Mass Movement, Famine and Epidemic: A Study in Interrelationship', Indian Church History Review, 22, 2 (1988), 109-25.
75. See, for example, G.A. Oddie, Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms 1850-1900 (Delhi, 1979); idem, Hindu and Christian in South-East India (London, 1991); Dick Kooiman, 'The Gospel of Coffee: Mission, Education and Employment in Travancore (19th century)', in Kooiman, Otto van den Muijzenberg, Peter van der Veer (eds.), Conversion, Competition and Conflict: Essays on the Role of Religion in Asia (Amsterdam, 1984), 185-214; idem, 'Mass Movement, Famine and Epidemic: A Study in Interrelationship', Indian Church History Review, 22, 2 (1988), 109-25.
76. A.A. Powell, Muslims and Missionaries in pre-Mutiny India (London, 1993); K. Jones, Socio-Religious Movements in British India (Cambridge, 1989).
77. A.A. Powell, Muslims and Missionaries in pre-Mutiny India (London, 1993); K. Jones, Socio-Religious Movements in British India (Cambridge, 1989).
78. J.D.Y. Peel, 'For Who Hath Despised the Day of Small Things? Missionary Narratives and Historical Anthropology', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 37, 3 (1995), 581-607, at 600.
79. By contrast, missionary time for the Tswana, according to the Comaroffs, was a source of restraint, 'the religious calendar of the church ... embracing the everyday lives of its participants in a continuous regime of instruction, veneration, and surveillance', Of Revelation and Revolution, 234.
80. Elizabeth Isichei, 'Does Christianity empower Women? The Case of the Anaguta of Central Nigeria', in Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood and Shirley Ardener (eds.), Women and Missions: Past and Present. Anthropological and Historical Perceptions (Providence and Oxford, 1993), 209.
81. Adrian Hastings, in ibid., 112
82. Kwok Pui-Lan, 'The Image of the "White Lady": Gender and Race in Christian Mission', in Anne Carr and Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza (eds.), The Special Nature of Women? (London and Philadelphia, 1991), 25.
83. Margaret Donaldson, 'Missionaries and the Liberation of Women: A Case Study from South Africa', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 53 (1985), 4-12; idem. 'The Invisible Factor: Nineteenth Century Feminist Evangelical Concern for Human Rights', Journal for the Study of Religion, 2, 2 (1989), 3-15; Rosemary Fitzgerald, 'A "peculiar and exceptional measure": The Call for Women Medical Missionaries for India in the Later Nineteenth Century', in Robert A. Bickers and Rosemary Seton (eds.), Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues (London, 1996), 174-96.
84. Margaret Donaldson, 'Missionaries and the Liberation of Women: A Case Study from South Africa', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 53 (1985), 4-12; idem. 'The Invisible Factor: Nineteenth Century Feminist Evangelical Concern for Human Rights', Journal for the Study of Religion, 2, 2 (1989), 3-15; Rosemary Fitzgerald, 'A "peculiar and exceptional measure": The Call for Women Medical Missionaries for India in the Later Nineteenth Century', in Robert A. Bickers and Rosemary Seton (eds.), Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues (London, 1996), 174-96.
85. Margaret Donaldson, 'Missionaries and the Liberation of Women: A Case Study from South Africa', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 53 (1985), 4-12; idem. 'The Invisible Factor: Nineteenth Century Feminist Evangelical Concern for Human Rights', Journal for the Study of Religion, 2, 2 (1989), 3-15; Rosemary Fitzgerald, 'A "peculiar and exceptional measure": The Call for Women Medical Missionaries for India in the Later Nineteenth Century', in Robert A. Bickers and Rosemary Seton (eds.), Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues (London, 1996), 174-96.
86. Robin Horton, 'African Conversion', Africa, 41, 2 (1971); idem, 'On the Rationality of Conversion', Africa, 45, 3-4 (1975); Richard Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries (New Haven and London, 1990), pt.2.
87. Robin Horton, 'African Conversion', Africa, 41, 2 (1971); idem, 'On the Rationality of Conversion', Africa, 45, 3-4 (1975); Richard Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries (New Haven and London, 1990), pt.2.
88. Robin Horton, 'African Conversion', Africa, 41, 2 (1971); idem, 'On the Rationality of Conversion', Africa, 45, 3-4 (1975); Richard Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries (New Haven and London, 1990), pt.2.
89. Cf. Dening, Islands and Beaches, 201.
90. Kwame Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a non-Western Religion (Edinburgh, 1995); also the review by Richard Gray, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 60, 1 (1997), 202.
91. Kwame Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a non-Western Religion (Edinburgh, 1995); also the review by Richard Gray, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 60, 1 (1997), 202.
92. Culture and Imperialism, xii.
93. Ibid., chs.3-4, and 353.
94. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, 11.
95. Ibid., 311.
96. Culture and Imperialism, 119.
97. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi, 1983), quotations from xi, xiii, xv.
98. This approach is derived most immediately from the work of R.E. Robinson and J.A. Gallagher: see especially R.E. Robinson, 'Non-European foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration', in Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe (eds.), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London, 1972), 117-42.
99. For a recent study, see C. Peter Williams, The Ideal of the Self-Governing Church: A Study in Victorian Missionary Strategy (Leiden, 1990).
100. Porter, 'War, Colonialism and the British Experience'.
101. For African examples. G.Prins, The Hidden Hippotamus. Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia (Cambridge, 1980); Terence Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimage in Twentieth Century Zimbabwe', Past and Present, 117 (1987), 158-94; Justin Willis, 'The Nature of a Mission Community: The Universities' Mission to Central Africa in Bonde', Past and Present, 140 (1993), 127-54. For the best bibliography now available, Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford, 1994), 644-85.
102. For African examples. G.Prins, The Hidden Hippotamus. Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia (Cambridge, 1980); Terence Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimage in Twentieth Century Zimbabwe', Past and Present, 117 (1987), 158-94; Justin Willis, 'The Nature of a Mission Community: The Universities' Mission to Central Africa in Bonde', Past and Present, 140 (1993), 127-54. For the best bibliography now available, Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford, 1994), 644-85.
103. For African examples. G.Prins, The Hidden Hippotamus. Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia (Cambridge, 1980); Terence Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimage in Twentieth Century Zimbabwe', Past and Present, 117 (1987), 158-94; Justin Willis, 'The Nature of a Mission Community: The Universities' Mission to Central Africa in Bonde', Past and Present, 140 (1993), 127-54. For the best bibliography now available, Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford, 1994), 644-85.
104. For African examples. G.Prins, The Hidden Hippotamus. Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia (Cambridge, 1980); Terence Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimage in Twentieth Century Zimbabwe', Past and Present, 117 (1987), 158-94; Justin Willis, 'The Nature of a Mission Community: The Universities' Mission to Central Africa in Bonde', Past and Present, 140 (1993), 127-54. For the best bibliography now available, Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford, 1994), 644-85.