Social Worlds, Actor-Networks and Controversy: The Case of Cholesterol, Dietary Fat and Heart Disease

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 27, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 727-773

  Garrety, Karin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHOLESTEROL; FAT;

ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; DIET; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEART DISEASE; HISTORY; HUMAN; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; SOCIOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

ANTHROPOLOGY, CULTURAL; CHOLESTEROL; DIET; FATS; HEALTH POLICY; HEART DISEASES; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NUTRITION ASSESSMENT; SOCIOLOGY, MEDICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0031254302     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631297027005002     Document Type: Article

References (243)

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3. see the letters published in JAMA, Vol. 252 (9 November 1984), 2945–48, and Vol. 253 (5 June 1985), 3090–91
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7. Nutrition Today invited 27 scientists, physicians and nutritionists with expertise in the diet-heart disease area to comment on the NHLBI interpretation of the trial. Twenty responses were published in the September/October and November/December issues of 1984. Most of those who responded expressed reservations about the interpretation and a few were extremely critical. See Nutrition Today, Vol. 19 (September/October 1984), 122–29, and (November/December 1984), 20–25.
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25. This paper investigates the social conditions which associated reproductive sciences with controversy, and the means through which scientists managed the controversial nature of their work. It does not examine the actual construction of knowledge itself. The actor-network theorists Michel Callon and Bruno Latour sometimes use their actor-network theory to explain the outcome of scientific controversies. See, for example, Michel Callon, ‘Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay’, in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London, Henley-on-Thames, Oxon. & Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 196–233
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34. Joan H. Fujimura, ‘Constructing “Do-able” Problems in Cancer Research: Articulating Alignment’, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 17 (1987), 257–293
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37. Andrew Pickering, ‘From Science as Knowledge to Science as Practice’, in Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 1–26.
38. Jerome R. Ravetz, Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971)
39. Anselm Strauss, ‘A Social World Perspective’, Studies in Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 1 (1978), 119–128
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41. For symbolic interactionist approaches to social problems, see Naomi Aronson, ‘Science as a Claims Making Activity: Implications for Social Problems Research’, in John I. Kitsuse and Joseph Schneider (eds), Advances in the Sociology of Social Problems (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1984), 1–30
42. Stephen Hilgartner and Charles L. Bosk, ‘The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model’, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 94 (1988), 53–78.
43. Anon., ‘Pooling of Funds Urged in Health Report’, JAMA, Vol. 129 (8 December 1945), 1037.
44. Anon., ‘The American Heart Association Prepares for Intensified Educational and Fund-Raising Activities’, American Heart Journal, Vol. 34 (1947), 933–934
45. W.P. Shepard, ‘The American Heart Association as a National Voluntary Public Health Agency’, Circulation, Vol. 2 (1950), 736–741.
46. For examples of early publicity about heart disease, see Walter Adams, ‘The 100% American Way to Die’, Better Homes and Gardens, Vol. 26 (November 1947), 32, 244–31
47. P. Lochridge, ‘Guard Your Husband's Heart’, Woman's Home Companion, Vol. 75 (January 1948), 36
48. Anon., ‘Killer No. 1’, Time, Vol. 51 (9 February 1948), 27
49. Anon., ‘The Nation's Healthier’, Newsweek, Vol. 35 (6 March 1950), 47
50. Anon., ‘Why Executives Drop Dead’, Fortune, Vol. 41 (June 1950), 88–91, 149–56
51. Anon., ‘Coronaries and Cholesterol’, Time, Vol. 60 (1 December 1952), 39.
52. Anon., ‘News from the American Heart Association’, Circulation, Vol. 21 (1960), 477.
53. Kenneth E. Studer and Daryl E. Chubin, The Cancer Mission: Social Contexts of Biomedical Research (London: Sage Publications, 1980), 92.
54. Madelaine Kinsella, ‘A Synopsis of “Changes in Rabbit Aorta due to Experimentally Induced Cholesterolsteastosis” by N. Anitschkow’, in Jeremy R. Quiney, Gerald B. Watts and B. Lewis (eds), Classic Papers in Hyperlipidemia (London: Merck, Sharp & Dohme Science Press, 1989)
55. [Original paper published as ‘Uber die Veranderungen der Kaninchenaorta bei experimenteller Cholesterin-steatose’, Beitrage zur pathologischen Anatomie und zur allgemeinenen Pathologie, Vol. 56 (1913), 379–404].
56. Anitschkow's chapter, ‘Experimental Arteriosclerosis in Animals’, in Edmund V. Cowdry (ed.), Arteriosclerosis: A Survey of the Problem (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 271–322, is an extended argument in favour of the hypothesis that cholesterol is the major cause of atherosclerosis in animals and humans. Other contributors to this monograph take very little notice of cholesterol.
57. William Dock, ‘Editorial: Research in Arteriosclerosis – the First Fifty Years’, Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 49 (1958), 699–705.
58. Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia, PA & London: W.B. Saunders, 4th edn, 1929), 693.
59. Timothy Leary, ‘Atherosclerosis, the Important Form of Arteriosclerosis, a Metabolic Disease’, JAMA, Vol. 105 (17 August 1935), 475–81, at 476.
60. A few of these are: I.M. Rabinowitch, ‘Arteriosclerosis in Diabetes: Relationship between Plasma Cholesterol and Arteriosclerosis; Effects of High Carbohydrate, Low-Calorie Diet’, Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 8 (1935), 1436–74
61. C. Muller, ‘Xanthomata, Hypercholesterolemia, Angina Pectoris’, Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplement, Vol. 89 (1938), 75–84
62. Alfred Steiner and Beatrice Domanski, ‘Serum Cholesterol Level in Coronary Arteriosclerosis’, Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol. 71 (1943), 397–402
63. E.P. Boas, A.D. Parets and D. Aldersberg, ‘Hereditary Disturbance of Cholesterol Metabolism: a Factor in the Genesis of Atherosclerosis’, American Heart Journal, Vol. 35 (1948), 611–622.
64. F. Kendall, ‘Subcommittee on Biochemical Measurements, Conference on Methodology in Epidemiological Studies of Cardiovascular Diseases’, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 50 (1960), 67.
65. John W. Gorman, Hardin B. Jones, Frank T. Lindgren, Thomas P. Lyon, Harold A. Elliott and Beverley Strisower, ‘Blood Lipids and Human Atherosclerosis’, Circulation, Vol. 2 (1950), 161–177
66. David P. Barr, Ella M. Russ and Howard A. Eder, ‘Protein-lipid Relationships in Human Plasma II: In Atherosclerosis and Related Conditions’, American Journal of Medicine [hereafter A/M], Vol. 11 (1951), 480–493
67. J.W. Gofman, Martin Hanig, H.B. Jones, Max A. Lauffer, Eleanor Y. Lawry, Lena A. Lewis, George V. Mann, Felix E. Moore, Frederick Olmstead, J. Franklin Yeager, E. Cowles Andres, J.H. Barach, J.W. Beams, John W. Fertig, Irvine H. Page, James A. Shannon, Frederick J. Stare and Paul D. White, ‘Evaluation of Serum Lipoprotein and Cholesterol Measurements as Predictors of Clinical Complications of Atherosclerosis: Report of a Cooperative Study of Lipoproteins and Atherosclerosis’, Circulation, Vol. 14 (1956), 691–739.
68. Nancy Gough, ‘Effect of Diet on the Concentration of Cholesterol in Blood and Bile’, BMJ (1943), Vol. 2 (25 September), 390–391
69. Richard Gubner and Harry E. Ungerleider, ‘Arteriosclerosis: A Statement of the Problem’, AJM, Vol. 6 (1949), 60–83, at 70
70. Ancel Keys, Olaf Mickelsen, E.V.O. Miller and Carleton B. Chapman, ‘The Relation in Man between Cholesterol Levels in the Diet and in the Blood’, Science, Vol. 112 (21 July 1950), 79–81
71. Keys, ‘Human Atherosclerosis and the Diet’, Circulation, Vol. 5 (1952), 115–118
72. Ancel Keys's and Louis Katz's answers to questions published in Edgar V. Allen (ed.), ‘Atherosclerosis: A Symposium: Introduction’, Circulation, Vol. 5 (1952), 98–100, at 99.
73. A. Keys and J.T. Anderson, ‘The Relationship of the Diet to the Development of Atherosclerosis in Man’, in Symposium on Atherosclerosis (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, 1954), 181–197
74. Keys, Anderson, Flaminio Fidanza, Margaret H. Keys and Bengt Swahn, ‘Effects of Diet on Blood Lipids in Man, particularly Cholesterol and Lipoproteins’, Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 1 (1955), 34–52
75. B. Bronte-Stewart, A. Keys, J.F. Brock, A.D. Moodie, M.H. Keys and A. Antonis, ‘Serum Cholesterol, Diet, and Coronary Heart Disease: An Inter-Racial Survey in the Cape Peninsula’, Lancet (1955), Vol. 2 (26 November), 1103–07.
76. Robert E. Kowalski, The 8-Week Cholesterol Cure (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 10
77. Kowalski, Children and Cholesterol: Giving Children a Future Free of Heart Disease (Sydney: Bantam Schwatz, 1989), 14
78. David Symes, Cholesterol – Reducing Your Risk (London: Macdonald, 1990), 123–24. On 10 March 1992, the following exchange took place on Lateline, a current affairs programme of the Australian Broadcasting Commission.
79. Kerry O'Brien (interviewer): ‘Why is it important to have a lower cholesterol level, and how important is that?’
80. John Shaw (Director of the Australian National Heart Foundation): ‘The best way of answering that is to look at the countries that have the very lowest cholesterol levels. They have the very lowest rates of heart disease’.
81. Abraham M. Lilienfeld, Foundations of Epidemiology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 165
82. Max Michael, W. Thomas Boyce and Allen J. Wilcox, Biomedical Bestiary: An Epidemiologic Guide to Flaws and Fallacies in the Medical Literature (Boston, MA & Toronto: Little, Brown, 1984), 8.
83. I.H. Page, F.J. Stare, A.C. Corcoran, Herbert Pollack and Charles F. Wilkinson, ‘Atherosclerosis and the Fat Content of the Diet’, Circulation, Vol. 16 (1957), 163–178
84. John Yudkin, ‘Diet and Coronary Thrombosis: Hypothesis and Fact’, Lancet (1957), Vol. 2 (27 July), 155–162
85. G.V. Mann, ‘The Epidemiology of Coronary Heart Disease’, AJM, Vol. 23 (September 1957), 463–480
86. P.D.P. Wood, ‘A Possible Selection Effect in Medical Science’, The Statistician, Vol. 30 (1981), 131–135
87. Alvan R. Feinstein, Clinical Epidemiology: The Architecture of Clinical Research (Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1985), 569–570.
88. In ‘Cholesterol, “Giant Molecules”, and Atherosclerosis’, JAMA, Vol. 147 (15 December 1951), 1514–19, Keys re-analyzed the results of a study which claimed that fat transport molecules (giant molecules, later known as lipoproteins) were better correlated with heart disease than cholesterol, to show that cholesterol was better correlated.
89. In June 1964, a group of scientists published a study of an Italian community in Pennsylvania in which, they claimed, there was a high fat intake but a low rate of heart disease: Clarke Stout, Jerry Morrow, Edward N. Brandt and Stewart Wolf, ‘Unusually Low Incidence of Death From Myocardial Infarction’, JAMA, Vol. 188 (10 June 1964), 845–849.
90. The authors claimed that ‘[t]he most striking feature of Roseto [the community studied] was the way in which people seemed to enjoy life’ (849). Keys re-interpreted the data from Roseto: A. Keys, ‘Arteriosclerotic Heart Disease in Roseto, Pennsylvania’, JAMA, Vol. 195 (10 January 1966), 137–139.
91. Anon., ‘Fat's the Villain’, Newsweek, Vol. 44 (27 September 1954), 90–91, at 90.
92. Blake Clark, ‘Is this the No.l Villain in Heart Disease?’, Reader's Digest, Vol. 67 (December, 1955), 130–136.
93. Anon., ‘Fats and Heart Disease’, Time, Vol. 68 (12 November 1956), 45–46, at 45.
94. Some of the articles listed in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature are: S.M. Spenser, ‘Are You Eating Your Way to Arteriosclerosis?’, Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229 (1 December 1956), 23
95. Anon., ‘Too Much Fat in Your Diet?’, Changing Times, Vol. 11 (May 1957), 15
96. J. Pfeiffer, ‘What You Should Know About Heart Attacks and High Fat Diets’, Coronet, Vol. 42 (May 1957), 68
97. Anon., ‘Fat in the Diet’, Consumer Bulletin, Vol. 40 (July 1957), 2, 26–28
98. Anon., ‘Battle over Fats in Diet’, Business Week (17 August 1957), 89–90
99. Anon., ‘Controlling Cholesterol in the Diet’, Science Newsletter, Vol. 72 (21 September 1957), 183
100. Anon., ‘Dieting and the Heart’, Newsweek, Vol. 50 (11 November 1957), 113
101. Anon., ‘What We Know About Fats, Dietary Aids and Heart Disease’, Consumer Reports, Vol. 23 (April 1958), 219
102. Anon., ‘Prudent Diet Lowers Cholesterol in Blood’, Science Digest, Vol. 46 (October 1959), 48
103. Anon., ‘Cutting the Cholesterol’, Time, Vol. 75 (6 June 1960), 73.
104. Edward H. Ahrens, Jules Hirsch, William Insull, Theodore T. Tsaltas, Rolf Blomstrand and Malcolm L. Peterson, ‘The Influence of Dietary Fats on Serum-Lipid Levels in Man’, Lancet (1957), Vol. 1 (11 May), 943–953
105. Louis Horlick and B.M. Craig, ‘Effect of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated and Saturated Fatty Acids on the Serum-Lipids of Man’, Lancet (1957), Vol. 2 (21 September), 566–569.
106. Thomas R. Dawber, Felix E. Moore and G.V. Mann, ‘Coronary Heart Disease in the Framingham Study’, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 47, Part 2 (1957), 4–23
107. Eleanor Y. Lawry, Mann, Ann Peterson, Alice P. Wysocki, Rita O'Connell and F.J. Stare, ‘Cholesterol and Beta Lipoproteins in the Serums of Americans: Well Persons and Those with Coronary Heart Disease’, AJM, Vol. 22 (April 1957), 605–623
108. Joseph T. Doyle, A. Sandra Heslin, Herman E. Hilleboe and Paul F. Formel, ‘Early Diagnosis of Ischemic Heart Disease’, New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 261 (26 November 1959), 1096–1101
109. William J. Zukel, Robert H. Lewis, Philip E. Enter-line, Robert C. Painter, Lloyd S. Ralston, Robert M. Fawcett, Alia P. Meredith and Beatrice Peterson, ‘A Short-Term Community Study of the Epidemiology of Coronary Heart Disease’, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 49 (1959), 1630–39.
110. A.M. Nelson, ‘Blood Lipid Correction in Arteriosclerosis and its Hypotensive Effect’, Northwest Medicine, Vol. 51 (October 1952), 860–866
111. Lester M. Morrison, ‘A Nutritional Program for Prolongation of Life in Coronary Atherosclerosis’, JAMA, Vol. 159 (10 December 1955), 1425–28
112. T.P. Lyon, A. Yankley, J.W. Gorman and B. Strisower, ‘Lipoproteins and Diet in Coronary Heart Disease’, California Medicine, Vol. 84 (May 1956), 325–328
113. H.B. Jones, Gofman, F.T. Lindgren, Lyon, D.M. Graham, Strisower and A.V. Nichols, ‘Lipoproteins in Atherosclerosis’, AJM, Vol. 11 (September 1951), 358–379.
114. Some important reviews which did not mention the studies by Lyon's team, or the Nelson trials, were Norman Jolliffe, ‘Fats, Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease: A Review of Recent Progress’, Circulation, Vol. 20 (1959), 109–127
115. American Medical Association Council on Foods and Nutrition, ‘Symposium on Significance of Lowered Cholesterol Levels’, JAMA, Vol. 170 (29 August 1959), 2198–2203
116. The Central Committee for the Medical Community Program of the American Heart Association, ‘Dietary Fat and its Relation to Heart Attack and Strokes’, Circulation, Vol. 23 (1961), 389–391
117. the AMA Council on Foods and Nutrition, ‘The Regulation of Dietary Fat’, JAMA, Vol. 181 (4 August 1962), 411–429.
118. F. Stare and E.M. Whelan, One Hundred Percent Natural, Purely Organic, Cholesterol-Free, Megavitamin, Low-Carbohydrate Nutrition Hoax (New York: Atheneum, 1983).
119. In Anon., ‘From the Heart’, Time, Vol. 63 (19 April 1954), 28, Page described his own unpleasant experiences on a low-fat diet, and concluded that ‘diets should be changed with the greatest caution, and … physicians should be required to try their diets before prescribing them’.
120. In December 1968, Circulation (Vol. 28, 1164–72) published his paper ‘Atherosclerosis: A Personal View’, in which he called (at 1164–65) for a review of the heart disease research effort: ‘We announce bravely through the news media what we will be doing in the year 2000, knowing full well that many of us won't be around to take the responsibility.
121. This may keep the research dollars rolling in, but it deflects from the real problem, loath as we are to admit it. It is no fun to tell an eager Congressional committee how much we don't know and even less rewarding to give a panting reporter the reasons why the role that cholesterol plays is unclear’. See also I.H. Page, ‘Another Crusade!’, Science, Vol. 176 (2 June 1972), 967.
122. Marguerite Clark, ‘Fats – Not Proved Guilty’, Newsweek, Vol. 49 (20 May 1957), 33–35, at 33.
123. Anon., ‘Health Claims by Cooking Oils Due for Censure’, Printers' Ink, Vol. 278 (28 August 1959), 14–15.
124. For examples of Wesson Oil advertisements, see Better Homes and Gardens (December 1959), 89
125. New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 264 (16 February 1961), 72.
126. For the Corn Products Company, see JAMA, Vol. 170 (16 May 1959), 268.
127. Anon., ‘Tax-free Margarine’, Newsweek, Vol. 36 (3 July 1950), 51–52
128. Anon., ‘Familiar Feud Flares Again on New Fronts’, Printers' Ink, Vol. 267 (22 May 1959), 11–12.
129. Anon., ‘Margarine Widens Its Lead’, Business Week (11 November 1961), 67.
130. Francis Bello, ‘The Murderous Riddle of Heart Disease’, Fortune, Vol. 58 (September 1958), 142–46, 162–70, at 162
131. Anon., ‘Heart Motif Puts Margarine One Up on Rival’, Business Week (28 January 1961), 98–99.
132. Anon., ‘Heart Report Issued’, New York Times (18 May 1958), 74
133. Anon., ‘Council on Foods and Nutrition’, JAMA, Vol. 171 (17 October 1959), 925–928.
134. Anon., ‘Unsaturated Fats and Oils Claims Get Back Hand from FDA’, Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, Vol. 176 (21 December 1959), 7, 62.
135. Anon., ‘Fat and Oil Ads Disputed by US’, New York Times (11 December 1959), 26.
136. Anon., ‘Fat in the Fire’, Time, Vol. 76 (26 December 1960), 33.
137. In Anon., ‘To Save the Heart: Diet by Decree?’, Time, Vol. 93 (10 January 1969), 52–53, at 53, Stamler considers that changing the food supply is akin to public health measures which ensure the safety of the water supply: ‘We didn't just ask people to use sterilized water, we cleaned it up for them’.
138. For other examples of Stamler's work, see: J. Stamler, ‘Lifestyles, Major Risk Factors, Proof and Public Policy’, Circulation, Vol. 58 (1978), 3–19
139. Stamler, ‘Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease: The Last 20 Years’, American Journal of Cardiology, Vol. 47 (1981), 722–735.
140. Peter Bart, ‘Advertising: Dairy Men Open Counterattack’, New York Times (7 August 1962), 36.
141. Quoted from a reprint of the press release which was used in an advertisement placed by the American Dairy Association in the New York Times (20 November 1962), 18.
142. see also Anon., ‘AMA Council Warns Against Unsupervised Dieting to Lower Cholesterol’, JAMA, Vol. 182 (20 October 1962), 36
143. The President of Pacific Vegetable Oils immediately issued a press release regretting the qualifying statements of the AMA; see Anon., ‘Company Answers AMA Diet Warning’, New York Times (14 October 1962), 14.
144. The dairy industry found the release more useful; see advertisements in JAMA, Vol. 182 (10 November 1962), 22
145. Anon., ‘AMA Blows Whistle on Fat-Free Diets’, Business Week (20 October 1962), 47.
146. Anon., ‘Heart Group Urges All to Eat Less Fatty Food’, New York Times (9 June 1964), 71.
147. AMA Council on Foods and Nutrition, ‘Diet and the Possible Prevention of Coronary Atheroma’, JAMA, Vol. 194 (6 December 1965), 247–48, at 247.
148. T.R. Dawber, William B. Kannel, Nicholas Revotskie and Abraham Kagan, ‘The Epidemiology of Coronary Heart Disease: The Framingham Enquiry’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol. 55 (April 1962), 265–271
149. T. Gordon and Kannel, ‘The Framingham, Massachusetts, Study, Twenty Years Later’, in Irving I. Kessler and Morton L. Levin (eds), The Community as an Epidemiological Laboratory (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), 123–144.
150. Jerome Cornfield, ‘Joint Dependence of Risk of Coronary Heart Disease on Serum Cholesterol and Systolic Blood Pressure: A Discriminant Function Analysis’, Federation Proceedings, Vol. 21, Supplement 2 (1962), 58–61, at 61.
151. Inter-Society Commission for Heart Disease Resources, ‘Primary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Diseases’, Circulation, Vol. 42 (1970), A55–A95, proviso at A78
152. American Health Foundation, ‘Position Statement on Diet and Coronary Heart Disease’, Preventive Medicine, Vol. 1 (1972), 255–286
153. AMA Council on Foods and Nutrition, ‘Diet and Coronary Heart Disease’, JAMA, Vol. 222 (25 December 1972), 1647
154. AHA Committee Report, ‘Risk Factors and Coronary Disease: A Statement for Physicians’, Circulation, Vol. 62 (August 1980), 449A–455A, proviso at A452
155. The history of the study is set out in National Diet-Heart Study Research Group, The National Diet-Heart Study Final Report, AHA Monograph No. 18 (New York: American Heart Association, 1968), 413–419.
156. National Institutes of Health, Arteriosclerosis: A Report by the National Heart and Lung Institute Task Force on Arteriosclerosis (DHEW Publication No. NIH 72–137, June 1971), Vol. 1, 22.
157. Anon., ‘The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFTT): A National Study of Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease’, JAMA, Vol. 235 (23 February 1976), 825–827
158. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group, ‘Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial: Risk Factor Changes and Mortality Results’, JAMA, Vol. 248 (24 September 1982), 1465–77.
159. Jane E. Brody, ‘Heart Disease Study Shows No Gain in Bid to Cut Risks’, New York Times (17 September 1982), A10
160. George D. Lundberg, ‘Editorial: MRFTT and the Goals of the Journal’, JAMA, Vol. 248 (24 September 1982), 1501
161. Sandra Friedland, ‘Doctors Defend Heart Study that “Failed”’, New York Times (10 October 1982), Section 11, 1, 5
162. Robert I. Levy, ‘Causes of the Decrease in Cardiovascular Mortality’, American Journal of Cardiology, Vol. 54 (1984), 7C–13C.
163. For example, Pfizer Pharmaceutical Company helped fund an AHA lecture in Dallas in 1982, and a symposium on hypertension in Milan in 1983: see Daniel Steinberg, ‘Lipoproteins and Atherosclerosis’, Arteriosclerosis, Vol. 3 (July/August 1983), 283–301
164. ‘Coronary Heart Disease: Hypertension and Other Risk Factors: Proceedings of a Satellite Symposium of the First European Meeting on Hypertension’, AJM, Vol.76, Supplement 2A (27 February 1984), 1–124.
165. William E. Connor, ‘Measures to Reduce the Serum Lipid Levels in Coronary Heart Disease’, Medical Clinics of North America, Vol. 52 (September 1968), 1249–60
166. George Davey Smith and Juha Pekkanen, ‘Should there be a Moratorium on the Use of Cholesterol Lowering Drugs?’, BMJ, Vol. 302 (15 February 1992), 431–434.
167. Gail Vines, ‘Diet, Drugs and Heart Disease’, New Scientist (25 February 1989), 44–49
168. Stuart Gannes, ‘Behind the Battle over Cholesterol’, Fortune, Vol. 120 (18 December 1989), 77–83.
169. The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature lists articles in Health (‘Cholesterol Confirmation’), Reader's Digest (‘Cholesterol is the Culprit’), US News and World Report (‘Cholesterol: Latest on How to Fight It’), Discover (‘Cholesterol: The Villain Revealed’), Newsweek (‘Giving Cholesterol a Bad Name’), Macleans (‘Cholesterol is the Culprit’), Good Housekeeping, Science News (‘Lowered Cholesterol Lowers Heart Disease’), Science 84, Science (‘Lowered Cholesterol Decreases Heart Disease’) and Time (‘Sorry, It's True: Cholesterol Really Is a Killer’). On ABC Television's World News Tonight, TV reporter George Strait announced: ‘For more than a decade Americans have been warned to cut back on red meat, eggs and other foods high in cholesterol because scientists suspected that cholesterol was a prime cause of heart disease. Well, now they are sure. The new federal study confirms the definitive link between cholesterol and heart disease’: quoted in Jonathan R. Cole, ‘Dietary Cholesterol and Heart Disease: The Construction of a Medical “Fact”’, in Hubert J. O'Gorman (ed.), Surveying Social Life: Papers in Honor of Herbert H. Hyman (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 437–66, at 453.
170. Anon., ‘Sorry, It's True: Cholesterol Really Is a Killer’, Time, Vol. 123 (23 January 1984), at 32.
171. Gina Kolata, ‘Heart Panel's Conclusions Questioned’, Science, Vol. 227 (4 January 1985), 40–41
172. C.F. Enloe, ‘Preliminary to the Final’, Nutrition Today, Vol. 20 (January/February 1985), 10
173. E.H. Ahrens, “The Diet-Heart Question in 1985: Has it Really been Settled?’, Lancet (1985), Vol. 1(11 May), 1085–87
174. Alvin M. Mauer, ‘A Pediatrician Attends the National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference on Lowering Blood Cholesterol’, Pediatrics, Vol. 76 (July 1985), 125–126
175. P.J. Palumbo, ‘Editorial: National Cholesterol Education Program: Does the Emperor Have Any Clothes?’, Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Vol. 63 (January 1988), 88–90.
176. I.H. Page, ‘Diet and Heart Disease: Responses to the LRC-CPPT Findings’, Nutrition Today, Vol. 19 (September/October 1984), 22–29, at 28.
177. W.B. Kannel, J.T. Doyle, Adrian M. Ostfield, C. David Jenkins, Lewis Kuller, Richard N. Podell and J. Stamler, ‘Optimal Resources for Primary Prevention of Atherosclerosis’, Circulation, Vol. 70 (July 1984), 153A–205A, at 171A & 187 A.
178. Douglas M. Considine (ed.), Foods and Food Production Encyclopedia (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982), 564–565.
179. Patricia Hausman, Jack Sprat's Legacy: The Science and Politics of Fat and Cholesterol (New York: Richard Marek, 1981), Chapter 9.
180. James M. Naughton, ‘McGovern Cholesterol Inquiry Unlikely Before Dairy State Votes’, New York Times (30 January 1972), 33.
181. In June 1973, the American Health Foundation and the Institute of Food Technologists held a joint symposium on ‘Developing Foods for the Cardiac Concerned’: see Preventive Medicine, Vol. 2 (1973), 318–411.
182. Sam R. Hoover, ‘Research into Foods from Animal Sources: I: Controlling Level and Type of Fat’, Preventive Medicine, Vol. 2 (1973), 346–360
183. Olden C. Johnson, ‘Present and Proposed Regulations affecting the Marketing of Prudent Diet Foods’, Preventive Medicine, Vol. 2 (1973), 403–406.
184. Anon., ‘FTC Seeks Court Injunction to Stop Egg Cholesterol Ads’, Advertising Age (5 August 1974), 43
185. Anon., ‘FTC Judge Rules Ads for Eggs False: Cites Peril to Heart’, New York Times (12 December 1975), 25
186. Anon., ‘Perils of Eating, American Style’, Time, Vol. 100 (18 December 1972), 42–48
187. Lester R. Brown and Erik P. Eckholm, By Bread Alone (Oxford, New York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris & Braunschweig: Pergamon Press, 1974)
188. Jennifer Cross, ‘The Politics of Food’, The Nation (17 August 1974), 114–116
189. Susan George, How the Other Half Dies: The Real Reasons for World Hunger (New York: Penguin Books, 1976)
190. Warren J. Belasco, Appetite for Change: How the Counterculture Took On the Food Industry 1966–1988 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1989)
191. Harvey Levenstein, Paradox of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in Modern America (Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), Chapters 10–13.
192. David Falcone and Lynn C. Hartwig, ‘Congressional Process and Health Policy: Reform and Retrenchment’, in Theodor J. Litman and Leonard S. Robins (eds), Health Politics and Policy (New York: Delmar, 1984), 129–131
193. John H. Knowles (ed.), Doing Better and Feeling Worse: Health in the United States (New York: W.W. Norton, 1977)
194. Lawrence D. Brown, ‘Introduction to a Decade of Transition’, in Brown (ed.), Health Policy in Transition: A Decade of Health Politics, Policy and Law (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 1–15.
195. William J. Broad, ‘NIH Deals Gingerly with Diet-Disease Link’, Science, Vol. 204 (15 June 1979), 1175–78.
196. Donna V. Porter, Nutrition Policy Making in the United States Congress (unpublished PhD thesis, Ohio State University, 1980), 8, 32–33, 36
197. Congressional Information Service Inc., CIS Annual 1976 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1977), S581–85.
198. Report of the Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate, Eating in America: Dietary Goals for the United States (Cambridge, MA & London: The MIT Press, 1977).
199. See ‘Diet Related to Killer Diseases, III: Response to Dietary Goals of the US: Re Meat’, Hearings held 24 March 1977, summarized in Congressional Information Service Inc., CIS Annual 1977 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1977), 1047–48
200. ‘Diet Related to Killer Diseases, VI: Response to Dietary Goals of the US: Re Eggs’, Hearings held 26 July 1977, summarized in CIS Annual 1978 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1979), 1111
201. Report of the Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, US Senate, Eating in America: Dietary Goals for the United States (Washington, DC: US GPO, 2nd edn, 1977), at 5 (emphasis in original).
202. Marion Nestle, ‘Food Lobbies, the Food Pyramid and US Nutrition Policy’, International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 23 (1993), 483–496.
203. Robert Crawford, ‘Healthism and the Medicalization of Everyday Life’, International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 10 (1980), 365–388.
204. Muriel R. Gillick, ‘Health Promotion, Jogging, and the Pursuit of the Moral Life’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, Vol. 9 (1984), 369–387.
205. Mike Featherstone, ‘The Body in Consumer Culture’, in Featherstone, Mike Hepworth and Bryan S. Turner (eds), The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory (London, Newbury Park, CA & New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991), 171–196.
206. Charles Edgley and Dennis Brissett, ‘Health Nazis and the Cult of the Perfect Body: Some Polemical Observations’, Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 13 (1990), 257–279.
207. Stratford P. Sherman, ‘America's New Abstinence’, Fortune, Vol 111 (18 March 1985), 12–15.
208. For example, see Thomas J. Moore, Heart Failure (New York: Random House, 1989)
209. L.E. Ramsey, W.W. Yeo and P.R. Jackson, ‘Dietary Reduction of Serum Cholesterol Concentration: Time to Think Again’, BMJ, Vol. 303 (19 October 1991), 953–957
210. M.F. Oliver, ‘Doubts about Preventing Coronary Heart Disease’, BMJ, Vol. 304 (15 February 1992), 393–394
211. G.V. Mann (ed.), Coronary Heart Disease: The Dietary Sense and Nonsense (London: Janus, 1993)
212. Dale Atrens, ‘The Questionable Wisdom of a Low-Fat Diet’, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 39 (1994), 433–447
213. Peter L. Spencer, ‘Fat Faddists’, Consumers' Research Magazine, Vol. 78 (May 1995), 43
214. American College of Physicians, ‘Guidelines for Using Serum Cholesterol, High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol, and Triglyceride Levels as Screening Tests for Preventing Coronary Heart Disease in Adults’, Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 124 (1 March 1996), 515–517.
215. Ronald M. Deutsch, The New Nuts Among the Berries: How Nutrition Nonsense Captured America (Palo Alto, CA: Bull, 1977)
216. James C. Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reformers (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).
217. D.R. Maines, ‘Social Organization and Social Structure in Symbolic Inter-actionist Thought’, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 3 (1977), 235–259
218. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 3–144
219. Eliot Freidson, Professional Dominance: The Social Structure of Medical Care (New York: Atherton Press, 1970), Chapters 3 & 4
220. Freidson, Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), Chapters 2 & 7
221. Adelia M. Beeuwkes, ‘Food Faddism – A Growing Threat’, Postgraduate Medicine, Vol. 28 (July 1960), 75–81
222. Lois D. McBean, ‘Food Faddism: A Challenge to Nutritionists and Dietitians’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 27 (October 1974), 1071–78.
223. According to Lyn Payer, ‘American doctors want to do something, preferably as much as possible’: Payer, Medicine and Culture: Varieties of Treatment in the United States, England, West Germany and France (New York: Henry Holt, 1988), 124 (Payer's emphasis).
224. See also Howard F. Stein, American Medicine as Culture (Boulder, CO, San Francisco, CA & London: Westview Press, 1990), 30–31.
225. D.C. Jarvis, Folk Medicine (London: Pan Books, 14th printing, 1971). The book was first published in 1958.
226. H.M. Schmeck, ‘Report Prescribes Exercise, Less Fat’, New York Times (11 July 1966), 1, 14.
227. Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, ‘Towards Healthful Diets’, reproduced in Nutrition Today, Vol. 15 (May/June 1980), 7–11.
228. Anon., ‘Editorial: A Confusing Diet of Fact’, New York Times (3 June 1980), 18
229. W.J. Broad, ‘Academy Says Curb on Cholesterol Not Needed’, Science, Vol. 208 (20 June 1980), 1354–55.
230. Lawrence K. Altaian, ‘Report about Cholesterol Draws Agreement and Dissent’, New York Times (28 May 1980), 16
231. J.E. Brody, ‘Experts Assail Report Declaring Curb on Cholesterol Isn't Needed’, New York Times (1 June 1980), 1.
232. Karen De Witt, ‘Scientists Clash on Academy's Cholesterol Advice’, New York Times (20 June 1980), 15
233. Nicholas Wade, ‘Food Board's Fat Report Hits Fire’, Science, Vol. 209 (11 July 1980), 248–250.
234. Anon., ‘National Academy of Sciences Tightens Its Grip on the Food and Nutrition Board’, Nutrition Today, Vol. 19 (January/February 1984), 31–32.
235. B. Latour, The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, MA & London: Harvard University Press, 1988), 5–9, 85–90, 216–18.
236. S. L. Star, ‘Power, Technology and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions’, in J. Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London: Routledge, 1991), 26–56, at 42–43
237. See also Vicky Singleton and Mike Michael, ‘Actor-Networks and Ambivalence: General Practitioners in the UK Cervical Screening Programme’, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23 (1993), 227–264.
238. S.L. Star and J.R. Griesemer, ‘Institutional Ecology, “Translations” and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907–39’, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19 (1989), 387–420, at 393 (emphasis in original).
239. Dmitri N. Shalin, ‘Pragmatism and Social Interactionism’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9–29
240. S. Stryker, ‘The Vitalization of Symbolic Interactionism’, Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 50 (1987), 83–94.
241. Adele Clarke and Theresa Montini, ‘The Many Faces of RU486: Tales of Situated Knowledges and Technological Contestations’, Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Winter 1993), 42–78, at 45.
242. A.E. Clarke, ‘A Social Worlds Research Adventure: The Case of Reproductive Science’, in Susan E. Cozzens and Thomas F. Gieryn (eds), Theories of Science in Society (Bloomington & Indianapolis, IN: Indianapolis University Press, 1990), 15–42, at 20 (Clarke's emphasis).
243. A.E. Clarke, personal communication (19 June 1996).