Atmospheric pollution and the British copper industry, 1690-1920

Technology and Culture

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 655-689

  Newell, Edmund ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COPPER;

AIR POLLUTION; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDUSTRIAL WASTE; MINING; UNITED KINGDOM;

AIR POLLUTION; COPPER; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; INDUSTRIAL WASTE; MINING;

EID: 0031182418     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3106858     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Quoted in Stephen J. Lavender, New Land for Old: The Environmental Renaissance of the Lower Swansea Valley (Bristol, 1981), p. 6.
2. B. W. Clapp, An Environmental History of Britain since the Industrial Revolution (London, 1994), p. 27.
3. For the Lower Swansea Valley Project, see Lavender; E. M. Bridges, Healing the Scars: Derelict Land in Wales (Swansea, 1988) ; E. M. Bridges and Huw Morgan, "Dereliction and Pollution," in The City of Swansea: Challenges and Change, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths (Stroud, 1990), pp. 270-90; and Rosemary D. F. Bromley and G. Humphrys, eds., Dealing with Dereliction: The Redevelopment of the Lower Swansea Valley (Swansea, 1967).
4. For the Lower Swansea Valley Project, see Lavender; E. M. Bridges, Healing the Scars: Derelict Land in Wales (Swansea, 1988) ; E. M. Bridges and Huw Morgan, "Dereliction and Pollution," in The City of Swansea: Challenges and Change, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths (Stroud, 1990), pp. 270-90; and Rosemary D. F. Bromley and G. Humphrys, eds., Dealing with Dereliction: The Redevelopment of the Lower Swansea Valley (Swansea, 1967).
5. For the Lower Swansea Valley Project, see Lavender; E. M. Bridges, Healing the Scars: Derelict Land in Wales (Swansea, 1988) ; E. M. Bridges and Huw Morgan, "Dereliction and Pollution," in The City of Swansea: Challenges and Change, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths (Stroud, 1990), pp. 270-90; and Rosemary D. F. Bromley and G. Humphrys, eds., Dealing with Dereliction: The Redevelopment of the Lower Swansea Valley (Swansea, 1967).
6. Ronald Rees, "The South Wales Copper-Smoke Dispute. 1833-95," Welsh History Review 10 (1980-81): 480-96; and "The Great Copper Trials," History Today 43 (1993): 38-44.
7. Ronald Rees, "The South Wales Copper-Smoke Dispute. 1833-95," Welsh History Review 10 (1980-81): 480-96; and "The Great Copper Trials," History Today 43 (1993): 38-44.
8. See Christopher J. Schmitz, World Non-Ferrous Metal Production and Prices, 1700-1976 (London, 1979), pp. 62-64. For a fuller account of the history of the industry, see Edmund Newell, "'Copperopolis': The Rise and Fall of the Copper Industry in the Swansea District, 1826-1921," Business History 32 (1990): 75-97.
9. See Christopher J. Schmitz, World Non-Ferrous Metal Production and Prices, 1700-1976 (London, 1979), pp. 62-64. For a fuller account of the history of the industry, see Edmund Newell, "'Copperopolis': The Rise and Fall of the Copper Industry in the Swansea District, 1826-1921," Business History 32 (1990): 75-97.
10. The Wolfson Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales (Oxford, 1978), p. 11. For the smelter smoke problem in other countries, see Charles E. Harvey, The Rio Tinto Company: An Economic History of a Leading International Mining Concern 1873-1954 (Penzance, 1981), pp. 132-39; E. Schramm, "Experts in the Smelter Smoke Debate," in The Silent Countdown, ed. Peter Brimblecombe and C. Pfister (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 196-209; M.-L. Quinn, "Early Smelter Sites: A Neglected Chapter in the History and Geography of Acid Rain in the United States," Atmospheric Environment 23 (1989): 1281-92; and the same author's "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575-612.
11. The Wolfson Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales (Oxford, 1978), p. 11. For the smelter smoke problem in other countries, see Charles E. Harvey, The Rio Tinto Company: An Economic History of a Leading International Mining Concern 1873-1954 (Penzance, 1981), pp. 132-39; E. Schramm, "Experts in the Smelter Smoke Debate," in The Silent Countdown, ed. Peter Brimblecombe and C. Pfister (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 196-209; M.-L. Quinn, "Early Smelter Sites: A Neglected Chapter in the History and Geography of Acid Rain in the United States," Atmospheric Environment 23 (1989): 1281-92; and the same author's "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575-612.
12. The Wolfson Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales (Oxford, 1978), p. 11. For the smelter smoke problem in other countries, see Charles E. Harvey, The Rio Tinto Company: An Economic History of a Leading International Mining Concern 1873-1954 (Penzance, 1981), pp. 132-39; E. Schramm, "Experts in the Smelter Smoke Debate," in The Silent Countdown, ed. Peter Brimblecombe and C. Pfister (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 196-209; M.-L. Quinn, "Early Smelter Sites: A Neglected Chapter in the History and Geography of Acid Rain in the United States," Atmospheric Environment 23 (1989): 1281-92; and the same author's "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575-612.
13. The Wolfson Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales (Oxford, 1978), p. 11. For the smelter smoke problem in other countries, see Charles E. Harvey, The Rio Tinto Company: An Economic History of a Leading International Mining Concern 1873-1954 (Penzance, 1981), pp. 132-39; E. Schramm, "Experts in the Smelter Smoke Debate," in The Silent Countdown, ed. Peter Brimblecombe and C. Pfister (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 196-209; M.-L. Quinn, "Early Smelter Sites: A Neglected Chapter in the History and Geography of Acid Rain in the United States," Atmospheric Environment 23 (1989): 1281-92; and the same author's "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575-612.
14. The Wolfson Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales (Oxford, 1978), p. 11. For the smelter smoke problem in other countries, see Charles E. Harvey, The Rio Tinto Company: An Economic History of a Leading International Mining Concern 1873-1954 (Penzance, 1981), pp. 132-39; E. Schramm, "Experts in the Smelter Smoke Debate," in The Silent Countdown, ed. Peter Brimblecombe and C. Pfister (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 196-209; M.-L. Quinn, "Early Smelter Sites: A Neglected Chapter in the History and Geography of Acid Rain in the United States," Atmospheric Environment 23 (1989): 1281-92; and the same author's "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575-612.
15. Ralph A. Griffiths, Singleton Abbey and the Vivians of Swansea (Llandysul, 1988), p. 32. The high sulfur content of Cornish ores compared with imported ores contributed to the severity of the copper smoke problem in Swansea, given its close trading links with Cornwall. British Parliamentary Papers [hereafter BPP], Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Injury from Noxious Vapours 14 (1862), p. 224.
16. Ralph A. Griffiths, Singleton Abbey and the Vivians of Swansea (Llandysul, 1988), p. 32. The high sulfur content of Cornish ores compared with imported ores contributed to the severity of the copper smoke problem in Swansea, given its close trading links with Cornwall. British Parliamentary Papers [hereafter BPP], Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Injury from Noxious Vapours 14 (1862), p. 224.
17. E. I. Spence, Summer Excursions, 2nd ed., vol. 2 (London, 1809), p. 84.
18. See, for instance, T. C. Barker and J. R. Harris, A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens, 1750-1900 (Liverpool, 1954), p. 239; L. W. Evans, "The Non-Ferrous Metal Industries," in A History of Carmarthenshire, ed. John E. Lloyd, vol. 2 (Cardiff, 1939), pp. 361-62; W. H. Pascoe, The History of the Cornish Copper Company (Redruth, 1981), p. 133; and John Rowlands, Copper Mountain (Llangefni, 1966), pp. 128-30.
19. See, for instance, T. C. Barker and J. R. Harris, A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens, 1750-1900 (Liverpool, 1954), p. 239; L. W. Evans, "The Non-Ferrous Metal Industries," in A History of Carmarthenshire, ed. John E. Lloyd, vol. 2 (Cardiff, 1939), pp. 361-62; W. H. Pascoe, The History of the Cornish Copper Company (Redruth, 1981), p. 133; and John Rowlands, Copper Mountain (Llangefni, 1966), pp. 128-30.
20. See, for instance, T. C. Barker and J. R. Harris, A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens, 1750-1900 (Liverpool, 1954), p. 239; L. W. Evans, "The Non-Ferrous Metal Industries," in A History of Carmarthenshire, ed. John E. Lloyd, vol. 2 (Cardiff, 1939), pp. 361-62; W. H. Pascoe, The History of the Cornish Copper Company (Redruth, 1981), p. 133; and John Rowlands, Copper Mountain (Llangefni, 1966), pp. 128-30.
21. See, for instance, T. C. Barker and J. R. Harris, A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens, 1750-1900 (Liverpool, 1954), p. 239; L. W. Evans, "The Non-Ferrous Metal Industries," in A History of Carmarthenshire, ed. John E. Lloyd, vol. 2 (Cardiff, 1939), pp. 361-62; W. H. Pascoe, The History of the Cornish Copper Company (Redruth, 1981), p. 133; and John Rowlands, Copper Mountain (Llangefni, 1966), pp. 128-30.
22. S. C. and Mrs. Hall, The Book of South Wales (London, 1861), p. 261 n.
23. Quoted in John Percy, Metallurgy: Fuel; Fire-Clays; Copper; Zinc, Brass, etc. (London, 1861), p. 338.
24. The author is grateful to Peter Brimblecombe for this information.
25. Edmund Newell and Simon Watts, "The Environmental Impact of Industrialization in South Wales in the Nineteenth Century: 'Copper Smoke' and the Llanelli Copper Company," Environment and History 2 (1996): 309-36.
26. For the earliest instance of copper smoke, see D. J. Davies, The Economic History of South Wales prior to 1800 (Cardiff, 1933), p. 70. Two incidents in the 1720s are reported in Geraint D. Fielder, "Public Health and Hospital Administration in Swansea and West Glamorgan since the end of the 18th Century to 1914" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1962), pp. 283-86. Grant-Francis also notes that Lockwood, Morris and Company's move from the Llangavelach Works to the Forest Works in 1727 may have been because of the problem of copper smoke. George Grant-Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District of South Wales, from the Time of Elizabeth to the Present Day, 2nd ed. (London, 1881), p. 110.
27. For the earliest instance of copper smoke, see D. J. Davies, The Economic History of South Wales prior to 1800 (Cardiff, 1933), p. 70. Two incidents in the 1720s are reported in Geraint D. Fielder, "Public Health and Hospital Administration in Swansea and West Glamorgan since the end of the 18th Century to 1914" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1962), pp. 283-86. Grant-Francis also notes that Lockwood, Morris and Company's move from the Llangavelach Works to the Forest Works in 1727 may have been because of the problem of copper smoke. George Grant-Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District of South Wales, from the Time of Elizabeth to the Present Day, 2nd ed. (London, 1881), p. 110.
28. For the earliest instance of copper smoke, see D. J. Davies, The Economic History of South Wales prior to 1800 (Cardiff, 1933), p. 70. Two incidents in the 1720s are reported in Geraint D. Fielder, "Public Health and Hospital Administration in Swansea and West Glamorgan since the end of the 18th Century to 1914" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1962), pp. 283-86. Grant-Francis also notes that Lockwood, Morris and Company's move from the Llangavelach Works to the Forest Works in 1727 may have been because of the problem of copper smoke. George Grant-Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District of South Wales, from the Time of Elizabeth to the Present Day, 2nd ed. (London, 1881), p. 110.
29. Zoning is noted in J. M. Davies, "The Growth of Settlement in the Swansea Valley" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1952), p. 36; and D. J. Davies, p. 117. This was eighty-four years in advance of the formal recognition of the restrictive covenant as a zoning device. A. W. B. Simpson, A History of the Land Law, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1986), p. 256.
30. Zoning is noted in J. M. Davies, "The Growth of Settlement in the Swansea Valley" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1952), p. 36; and D. J. Davies, p. 117. This was eighty-four years in advance of the formal recognition of the restrictive covenant as a zoning device. A. W. B. Simpson, A History of the Land Law, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1986), p. 256.
31. Zoning is noted in J. M. Davies, "The Growth of Settlement in the Swansea Valley" (master's thesis, University of Wales, 1952), p. 36; and D. J. Davies, p. 117. This was eighty-four years in advance of the formal recognition of the restrictive covenant as a zoning device. A. W. B. Simpson, A History of the Land Law, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1986), p. 256.
32. Quoted in Kenneth Davies, "Manufacturing Industries of the Greenfield Valley" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wales, 1985), p. 62.
33. Liverpool Chronicle, September 8-15, 1768; and also W. H. Chaloner, "Charles Roe of Macclesfield (1715-81): An Eighteenth Century Industrialist," Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society 63 (1952-53): 60-62.
34. Liverpool Chronicle, September 8-15, 1768; and also W. H. Chaloner, "Charles Roe of Macclesfield (1715-81): An Eighteenth Century Industrialist," Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society 63 (1952-53): 60-62.
35. Grant-Francis, p. 77.
36. Cited in W. H. Jones, History of the Port of Swansea (Carmarthen, 1922), p. 313.
37. The dispersion of copper smoke in south Wales is referred to in BPP, Second Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large Towns and Populous Districts 18 (1845), p. 268; H. W. E. Davies, "The Development of the Industrial Landscape of Western South Wales during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (master's thesis, University of London, 1955), p. 287; Evans (n. 9 above), pp. 361-62; and J. M. Davies (n. 15 above), pp. 99, 111-12.
38. The dispersion of copper smoke in south Wales is referred to in BPP, Second Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large Towns and Populous Districts 18 (1845), p. 268; H. W. E. Davies, "The Development of the Industrial Landscape of Western South Wales during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (master's thesis, University of London, 1955), p. 287; Evans (n. 9 above), pp. 361-62; and J. M. Davies (n. 15 above), pp. 99, 111-12.
39. The dispersion of copper smoke in south Wales is referred to in BPP, Second Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large Towns and Populous Districts 18 (1845), p. 268; H. W. E. Davies, "The Development of the Industrial Landscape of Western South Wales during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (master's thesis, University of London, 1955), p. 287; Evans (n. 9 above), pp. 361-62; and J. M. Davies (n. 15 above), pp. 99, 111-12.
40. The dispersion of copper smoke in south Wales is referred to in BPP, Second Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large Towns and Populous Districts 18 (1845), p. 268; H. W. E. Davies, "The Development of the Industrial Landscape of Western South Wales during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (master's thesis, University of London, 1955), p. 287; Evans (n. 9 above), pp. 361-62; and J. M. Davies (n. 15 above), pp. 99, 111-12.
41. Thomas Williams, Report on the Copper Smoke, Its Influence on the Public Health, and the Industrial Diseases of Coppermen (Swansea, 1854), p. 96.
42. Daniel C. Webb, Observations and Remarks, during Four Excursions Made to Various Parts of Great Britain in the Years 1810 and 1811 (London, 1812), pp. 353-54.
43. Cambrian, August 6, 1858. For the effects of copper smoke on buildings, see BPP, State of Large Towns, pp. 268, 273.
44. Cambrian, August 6, 1858. For the effects of copper smoke on buildings, see BPP, State of Large Towns, pp. 268, 273.
45. L. W. Dillwyn, Contributions Towards a History of Swansea (1840), p. 66.
46. For example, see Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 485; and Williams, p. 27.
47. For example, see Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 485; and Williams, p. 27.
48. J. H. Collins, "Four Centuries of Copper Production in the West of England," Transactions of the Mining Association and Institution ofCornwall 4 (1895): 238.
49. The Tourist's Companion in Swansea (Swansea, 1871), pp. 5-6.
50. BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours 44 (1878), p. 578.
51. David Boorman, The Brighton of Wales (Swansea, 1986), p. 95.
52. Quoted in Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute," p. 483 n.
53. Proceedings of the Subscribers to the Fund for Obviating the Inconvenience Arising from the Smoke Produced by Smelting Copper Ores (1863), pp. 11-14; Cambrian, February 11 and 22, 1823.
54. Proceedings of the Subscribers to the Fund for Obviating the Inconvenience Arising from the Smoke Produced by Smelting Copper Ores (1863), pp. 11-14; Cambrian, February 11 and 22, 1823.
55. Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute," p. 483 n.
56. J. F. Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33; John P. S. McLaren, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution: Some Lessons from Social History," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1983): 155-221. For an introduction to nuisance law, see J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History, 3rd ed. (London, 1990), pp. 478-93.
57. J. F. Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33; John P. S. McLaren, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution: Some Lessons from Social History," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1983): 155-221. For an introduction to nuisance law, see J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History, 3rd ed. (London, 1990), pp. 478-93.
58. J. F. Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33; John P. S. McLaren, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution: Some Lessons from Social History," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1983): 155-221. For an introduction to nuisance law, see J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History, 3rd ed. (London, 1990), pp. 478-93.
59. Rio Tinto Zinc Corporation archives, London [hereafter RTZ], 90-A-3. Morrison and Rees v Rio Tinto Co., 1894-95.
60. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
61. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
62. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
63. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
64. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
65. FoF Earl of Jersey v Bankart and Sons, see Cambrian, August 6, 1858; for Earl of Jersey v Williams, Foster and Co., see Jones (n. 19 above), p. 314, and Cambrian, January 23, 1841; for Earl of Jersey v Pascoe Grenfell and Son,
66. see Jones, p. 314;
67. and for Dougdale Houghton v Bankart and Sons,
68. see Cambrian, August 6 and 13, 1858.
69. Brenner, p. 413. For Tipping v St. Helens Smelting Co., see Law Reports, Chancery Appeals 1 (1865-66), pp. 66-69.
70. Brenner, p. 413. For Tipping v St. Helens Smelting Co., see Law Reports, Chancery Appeals 1 (1865-66), pp. 66-69.
71. Cambrian, March 9, 1833. See also University College Swansea, Yorkshire Imperial Metals, Vivian Papers Dl, Brief for the Defendants.
72. Cambrian, August 9, 1834.
73. Vivian Papers A782, National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth.
74. In one assize, the company had as many as fifteen actions brought against it. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), pp. 156-57, 503.
75. For the dispute concerning Nash Vaughan, see Cambrian, September 15 and October 27, 1865; and Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 492. For the later dispute, see Important Correspondence with Miss Talbot (Swansea, 1894); RTZ, 90-A-3; BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Land in Wales and Monmouthshire 37(1894), pp. 394, 492-93.
76. For the dispute concerning Nash Vaughan, see Cambrian, September 15 and October 27, 1865; and Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 492. For the later dispute, see Important Correspondence with Miss Talbot (Swansea, 1894); RTZ, 90-A-3; BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Land in Wales and Monmouthshire 37(1894), pp. 394, 492-93.
77. For the dispute concerning Nash Vaughan, see Cambrian, September 15 and October 27, 1865; and Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 492. For the later dispute, see Important Correspondence with Miss Talbot (Swansea, 1894); RTZ, 90-A-3; BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Land in Wales and Monmouthshire 37(1894), pp. 394, 492-93.
78. For the dispute concerning Nash Vaughan, see Cambrian, September 15 and October 27, 1865; and Rees, "Copper-Smoke Dispute" (n. 4 above), p. 492. For the later dispute, see Important Correspondence with Miss Talbot (Swansea, 1894); RTZ, 90-A-3; BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Land in Wales and Monmouthshire 37(1894), pp. 394, 492-93.
79. Quoted in Brenner (n. 33 above), p. 414 n.
80. For the enterprise on Anglesey and its possible link with Bristol, see Mona Mine MSS 3032, University College of North Wales, Bangor (hereafter UCNW); Joan Day, Bristol Brass: A History of the Industry (Newton Abbot, 1973), pp. 99-100, 117-20.
81. For the enterprise on Anglesey and its possible link with Bristol, see Mona Mine MSS 3032, University College of North Wales, Bangor (hereafter UCNW); Joan Day, Bristol Brass: A History of the Industry (Newton Abbot, 1973), pp. 99-100, 117-20.
82. Proceedings of the Subscribers (n. 31 above), pp. 11-12; and BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours, pp. 464-65.
83. Proceedings of the Subscribers (n. 31 above), pp. 11-12; and BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours, pp. 464-65.
84. TwO of Davy's letters are reproduced in Proceedings of the Subscribers, pp. 51-53. For an account of Faraday's activities, see Dafydd Tomos, Michael Faraday in Wales (n.p., 1972), pp. 31-37, 149-51, 158-65.
85. TwO of Davy's letters are reproduced in Proceedings of the Subscribers, pp. 51-53. For an account of Faraday's activities, see Dafydd Tomos, Michael Faraday in Wales (n.p., 1972), pp. 31-37, 149-51, 158-65.
86. Percy (n. 11 above), p. 340.
87. For the first Llanelli stack, see Cambrian, February 12, 1831; for the Pembrey and second Llanelli stacks, see Cambrian, November 1, 1861.
88. For the first Llanelli stack, see Cambrian, February 12, 1831; for the Pembrey and second Llanelli stacks, see Cambrian, November 1, 1861.
89. Quoted in Martin Phillips, The Copper Industry of the Port Talbot District (Neath, 1935), pp. 40-41.
90. Mona Mine MSS 3191, UCNW. For other applications of this technology, see D. Gordon Tucker, "Fumes, Flues, Condensers and Chimneys in Lead Smelting," Bulletin of the Historical Metallurgy Group 6 (1972): 1-6.
91. BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours (n. 7 above), p. 577.
92. Proceedings of the Subscribers (n. 31 above), pp. 36-37.
93. For Schafheutl, see Percy (n. 11 above), pp. 340-41; for Gurlt, see Grant-Francis (n. 14 above), p. 123, and Cambrian, October 27, 1865.
94. For Schafheutl, see Percy (n. 11 above), pp. 340-41; for Gurlt, see Grant-Francis (n. 14 above), p. 123, and Cambrian, October 27, 1865.
95. For Schafheutl, see Percy (n. 11 above), pp. 340-41; for Gurlt, see Grant-Francis (n. 14 above), p. 123, and Cambrian, October 27, 1865.
96. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), pp. 503, 507-8. For details of the muffle furnace, see BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours, pp. 123-26; and Chemical News, suppl., September 20, 1867.
97. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), pp. 503, 507-8. For details of the muffle furnace, see BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours, pp. 123-26; and Chemical News, suppl., September 20, 1867.
98. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), pp. 503, 507-8. For details of the muffle furnace, see BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours, pp. 123-26; and Chemical News, suppl., September 20, 1867.
99. Schramm (n. 6 above), pp. 196-209.
100. BPP, Royal Commission, on Noxious Vapours, p. 470.
101. Times (London), August 21, 1865.
102. Reproduced in Grant-Francis, pp. 151-60.
103. For the technical problems associated with the Gerstenhöfer furnace, see BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours, pp. 467, 469, 503.
104. Ibid., p. 521;
105. and E. Trubshaw, "On the Tinplate Manufacture," Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 1 (1883): 254, 256.
106. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours, pp. 507-8, 577.
107. J. S. Carter, "A Century of Achievement," Smokeless Air 132 (1964): 140.
108. See Ludwig Teleky, History of Factory and Mine Legislation (New York, 1948), pp. 7-12; and George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases (New York, 1943), chaps. 3 and 4. For a general survey of atmospheric pollution and public health, see Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (London, 1983), chap. 8.
109. See Ludwig Teleky, History of Factory and Mine Legislation (New York, 1948), pp. 7-12; and George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases (New York, 1943), chaps. 3 and 4. For a general survey of atmospheric pollution and public health, see Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (London, 1983), chap. 8.
110. See Ludwig Teleky, History of Factory and Mine Legislation (New York, 1948), pp. 7-12; and George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases (New York, 1943), chaps. 3 and 4. For a general survey of atmospheric pollution and public health, see Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (London, 1983), chap. 8.
111. P. A. B. Raffle et al., eds., Hunter's Diseases of Occupations (London, 1987), p. 292.
112. William G. Maton, Observations of the Western Counties of England, vol. 1 (Salisbury, 1797), p. 233.
113. Paris cites Maton at length in [J. A. Paris], A Guide to the Mount's Bay and the Land's End (Penzance, 1816), pp. 99-101.
114. BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Children's Employment in Mines and Manufactories 17 (1842), p. 681.
115. For Bevan, see BPP, State of Large Towns (n. 20 above), p. 273; for Wilkinson, see Cambrian, July 7, 1832.
116. For Bevan, see BPP, State of Large Towns (n. 20 above), p. 273; for Wilkinson, see Cambrian, July 7, 1832.
117. Llanelly Guardian, February 2, 1928. Such divergent views, which reflect not only lack of information on occupational and public health but also the influence of vested interests, were not unique to copper smelting. See, for instance, the debate surrounding the addition of tetraethyl lead to gasoline in the United States in the 1920s. William Graebner, "Private Power, Private Knowledge, and Public Health: Science, Engineering and Lead Poisoning, 1900-1970," in The Health and Safety of Workers: Case Studies in the Politics of Professional Responsibility, ed. Ronald Bayer (New York, 1988).
118. Llanelly Guardian, February 2, 1928. Such divergent views, which reflect not only lack of information on occupational and public health but also the influence of vested interests, were not unique to copper smelting. See, for instance, the debate surrounding the addition of tetraethyl lead to gasoline in the United States in the 1920s. William Graebner, "Private Power, Private Knowledge, and Public Health: Science, Engineering and Lead Poisoning, 1900-1970," in The Health and Safety of Workers: Case Studies in the Politics of Professional Responsibility, ed. Ronald Bayer (New York, 1988).
119. The mean death rate for Swansea between 1841 and 1860 was 19 per 1,000 compared with 22 per 1,000 for England and Wales as a whole. Ieuan G. Jones, Mid-Victorian Wales: The Observers and the Observed (Cardiff, 1992), pp. 26, 171. See also BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board 25 (1874), p. 440; and Glyn Roberts, The Municipal Development of the Borough of Swansea to 1900 (Cardiff, 1940), p. 48.
120. The mean death rate for Swansea between 1841 and 1860 was 19 per 1,000 compared with 22 per 1,000 for England and Wales as a whole. Ieuan G. Jones, Mid-Victorian Wales: The Observers and the Observed (Cardiff, 1992), pp. 26, 171. See also BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board 25 (1874), p. 440; and Glyn Roberts, The Municipal Development of the Borough of Swansea to 1900 (Cardiff, 1940), p. 48.
121. The mean death rate for Swansea between 1841 and 1860 was 19 per 1,000 compared with 22 per 1,000 for England and Wales as a whole. Ieuan G. Jones, Mid-Victorian Wales: The Observers and the Observed (Cardiff, 1992), pp. 26, 171. See also BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board 25 (1874), p. 440; and Glyn Roberts, The Municipal Development of the Borough of Swansea to 1900 (Cardiff, 1940), p. 48.
122. Roberts, p. 48.
123. BPP, State of Large Towns, p. 279.
124. For the request, see Public Record Office, Kew [hereafter PRO], M.T. 13/178. Correspondence between the General Board of Health and Thomas Williams, January 27, 1854; July 18, 1854; and August 9, 1854. For the report, see Williams (n. 21 above).
125. This was because of disagreement over the extent to which workers were exposed to fumes that were largely contained within furnaces and flues. Compare, for instance, the contradictory statements by Tathatn, who believed copper smelting to be an unhealthy occupation, and Simon and Knyvett, who did not, in Oliver's classic study of occupational health. Thomas Oliver, ed., Dangerous Trades (London, 1902), pp. 140, 466.
126. Percy (n. 11 above), p. 338.
127. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), p. 494. At the time, sulfur was regarded by some experts as a remedy for cholera. Margaret Pelling, Cholera, Fever and English Medicine 1825-1865 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 148-49, 192.
128. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), p. 494. At the time, sulfur was regarded by some experts as a remedy for cholera. Margaret Pelling, Cholera, Fever and English Medicine 1825-1865 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 148-49, 192.
129. BPP, Report of the Royal Commission on Children's Employment 20 (1865), p. 221.
130. For Davies's work in this field, see BPP, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board 29 (1878-79), pp. 264-65; Swansea City Archives, Medical Officer's Report (various years); and BPP, Local Government Board 29 (1878-79), p. 259.
131. For Davies's work in this field, see BPP, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board 29 (1878-79), pp. 264-65; Swansea City Archives, Medical Officer's Report (various years); and BPP, Local Government Board 29 (1878-79), p. 259.
132. BPP, Third Annual Report of the Load Government Board, 1873-4, 25 (1874), appendix A, no. 23.
133. For instance, D. J. Rowe, Lead Manufacturing in Britain: A History (London, 1983), chap. 7.
134. W. R. Cornish and G. de N. Clark, Law and Society in England 1750-1950 (London, 1989), p. 159.
135. PRO, M.H. 13/178. William Jowett to Local Government Act Office, February 15, 1859.
136. PRO, M.H. 13/231.
137. See Ebenezer Davies, "A Retrospect," Public Health 17 (1904-5): 76-81.
138. Royal Institution of South Wales, Swansea, R66/187, Report Book of the Officer for Health.
139. BPP, Report upon the Means of Obviating the Evils arising from the Smoke Occasioned by Factories and Other Works in Large Towns 43 (1846), p. 336.
140. See Clapp (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33.
141. Eric Ashby and Mary Anderson, The Politics of Clean Air (Oxford, 1981), especially chaps. 1 and 2.
142. See PRO, M.H. 13/178, 1446/59, and 1511/59; and BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours (n. 7 above), p. 73.
143. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
144. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
145. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
146. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
147. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
148. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1956), p. 171. For the Select Committee and Royal Commission and Alkali Acts, see Peter W. J. Bartrip, "State Intervention in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain: Fact or Fiction?" Journal of British Studies 23 (1983): 63-83; A. E. Dingle, " The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution, 1828-64," Economic, History Review 35, 2nd ser. (1982): 529-48; Roy M. McLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Service," Victorian Studies 9 (1965-66): 85-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; and Carter (n. 61 above), pp. 136-47, which provides good coverage of copper smoke and the Alkali Acts.
149. Ashdy and Anderson, p. 21. During the 1840s, the alkali manufacturer William Gossage developed a strong interest in metallurgy and moved to Neath, where he involved himself with the local metal works. In 1843, he took out a patent with Henry Hussey Vivian for improvements in the smelting of zinc, and in 1845 he patented a method for treating various ores, which included a process for collecting sulfur given off by copper ores using a condensing tower similar to one he had designed previously for condensing hydrochloric acid in alkali manufacture. Although the Gossage tower achieved widespread use in alkali works, it was never taken up by the copper industry. Gossage later complained that he "could not persuade the copper smelters to look at my operations." The reason for this lack of interest is unclear, though it is possible that a condensing tower would have prevented the necessary draft required for efficient smelting obtained by the use of tall chimneys. Whatever the reason, Gossage's lack of commercial success forced him to abandon his activities in south Wales, and no further interest was shown in this technology. See Fenwick Allen, Some Founders of the Chemical Industry, 2nd ed. (London, 1907), pp. 17-18; and BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours, pp. 110-11.
150. Ashdy and Anderson, p. 21. During the 1840s, the alkali manufacturer William Gossage developed a strong interest in metallurgy and moved to Neath, where he involved himself with the local metal works. In 1843, he took out a patent with Henry Hussey Vivian for improvements in the smelting of zinc, and in 1845 he patented a method for treating various ores, which included a process for collecting sulfur given off by copper ores using a condensing tower similar to one he had designed previously for condensing hydrochloric acid in alkali manufacture. Although the Gossage tower achieved widespread use in alkali works, it was never taken up by the copper industry. Gossage later complained that he "could not persuade the copper smelters to look at my operations." The reason for this lack of interest is unclear, though it is possible that a condensing tower would have prevented the necessary draft required for efficient smelting obtained by the use of tall chimneys. Whatever the reason, Gossage's lack of commercial success forced him to abandon his activities in south Wales, and no further interest was shown in this technology. See Fenwick Allen, Some Founders of the Chemical Industry, 2nd ed. (London, 1907), pp. 17-18; and BPP, Select Committee on Noxious Vapours, pp. 110-11.
151. BPP, Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours (n. 28 above), especially evidence by Vivian, Lambert, and Grenfell.
152. Carter, pp. 144-45.
153. For Smith, see Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke (London, 1987), p. 139; and for his contribution to the copper smoke debate, see BPP, Alkali Act, 1863. Eighth Annual Report by the Inspector 16 (1872), pp. 13-14; BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board (n. 78 above), p. 396; BPP, Alkali Acts, 1863 and 1874. Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports by the Inspector 16 (1878-79), p. 8.
154. For Smith, see Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke (London, 1987), p. 139; and for his contribution to the copper smoke debate, see BPP, Alkali Act, 1863. Eighth Annual Report by the Inspector 16 (1872), pp. 13-14; BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board (n. 78 above), p. 396; BPP, Alkali Acts, 1863 and 1874. Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports by the Inspector 16 (1878-79), p. 8.
155. For Smith, see Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke (London, 1987), p. 139; and for his contribution to the copper smoke debate, see BPP, Alkali Act, 1863. Eighth Annual Report by the Inspector 16 (1872), pp. 13-14; BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board (n. 78 above), p. 396; BPP, Alkali Acts, 1863 and 1874. Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports by the Inspector 16 (1878-79), p. 8.
156. For Smith, see Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke (London, 1987), p. 139; and for his contribution to the copper smoke debate, see BPP, Alkali Act, 1863. Eighth Annual Report by the Inspector 16 (1872), pp. 13-14; BPP, Third Annual Report of the Local Government Board (n. 78 above), p. 396; BPP, Alkali Acts, 1863 and 1874. Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports by the Inspector 16 (1878-79), p. 8.
157. Ashby and Anderson (n. 87 above), p. 78; and BPP, Annual Report of the, Proceedings of the Alkali Inspectorate, 1912 16 (1913), p. 444.
158. Ashby and Anderson (n. 87 above), p. 78; and BPP, Annual Report of the, Proceedings of the Alkali Inspectorate, 1912 16 (1913), p. 444.
159. Stanley Vivian, The Story of the Vivians (1989), p. 55.
160. BPP, Annual Report of the Medical Officer (n. 77 above), p. 259. For the pollution problems associated with sulfuric acid production, see the same report, pp. 168-82. For the draining of pollutants into waterways, see Cambrian, October 27, 1865; and J. H. Benyon and D. Betteridge, "The Rise and Fall of Copper: A Swansea Chronicle," Chemistry in Britain 15 (1979): 343.
161. BPP, Annual Report of the Medical Officer (n. 77 above), p. 259. For the pollution problems associated with sulfuric acid production, see the same report, pp. 168-82. For the draining of pollutants into waterways, see Cambrian, October 27, 1865; and J. H. Benyon and D. Betteridge, "The Rise and Fall of Copper: A Swansea Chronicle," Chemistry in Britain 15 (1979): 343.
162. BPP, Annual Report of the Medical Officer (n. 77 above), p. 259. For the pollution problems associated with sulfuric acid production, see the same report, pp. 168-82. For the draining of pollutants into waterways, see Cambrian, October 27, 1865; and J. H. Benyon and D. Betteridge, "The Rise and Fall of Copper: A Swansea Chronicle," Chemistry in Britain 15 (1979): 343.
163. For instance, at the Rio Tinto Company mines in southern Spain, an Anti-Smoke League was formed by local farmers, the company faced "smoke riots" in 1888 in which thirteen people were killed, compensation had to be paid to more than sixteen hundred people, the government banned the use of certain processes, and the company was forced into a campaign to change the legislation which involved publishing propaganda pamphlets and bribing journalists and government advisers. See Harvey (n. 6 above), pp. 132-39; and David Avery, Not on Queen Victoria's Birthday: The Story of the Rio Tinto Mines (London, 1974), pp. 180, 192, 301, 309.
164. For instance, at the Rio Tinto Company mines in southern Spain, an Anti-Smoke League was formed by local farmers, the company faced "smoke riots" in 1888 in which thirteen people were killed, compensation had to be paid to more than sixteen hundred people, the government banned the use of certain processes, and the company was forced into a campaign to change the legislation which involved publishing propaganda pamphlets and bribing journalists and government advisers. See Harvey (n. 6 above), pp. 132-39; and David Avery, Not on Queen Victoria's Birthday: The Story of the Rio Tinto Mines (London, 1974), pp. 180, 192, 301, 309.
165. Bridges and Morgan (n. 3 above), p. 278.