Mr. Chips: An Ideal-Observer Model of Reading

Psychological Review

Volumn 104, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 524-553

  Legge, Gordon E ^b   Klitz, Timothy S ^c   Tjan, Bosco S ^a  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALGORITHM; COMPUTER SIMULATION; HUMAN; OPTIC DISK; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; READING; REFERENCE VALUE; RETINA; REVIEW; SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENT; VISUAL DISORDER;

ALGORITHMS; COMPUTER SIMULATION; HUMANS; OPTIC DISK; READING; REFERENCE VALUES; RETINA; SACCADES; VISION, LOW;

EID: 0031182162     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.104.3.524     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Akutsu, H., Legge, G. E., Ross, J. A., & Schuebel, K. J. (1991). Psychophysics of reading: X. Effects of age-related changes in vision. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 325-331.
2. Anderson, J. R. (1991). Is human cognition adaptive? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 471-517.
3. Arditi, A. (1994). On the relationship of letter acuity to reading acuity. In A. C. Kooijman, P. L. Looijestijn, J. A. Welling, & G. J. van der Wildt (Eds.), Low vision: Research and new developments in rehabilitation (pp. 38-45). Amsterdam: IOS Press.
4. Arditi, A., Knoblauch, K., & Grunwald, I. (1990). Reading with fixed and variable character pitch. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 7, 2011-2015.
5. Attneave, F. (1954). Some informational aspects of visual perception. Psychological Review, 61, 183-193.
6. Bailey, I., & Lovie, J. (1980). The design and use of a new near vision chart. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, 57, 378-387.
7. Baldasare, J., Watson, G. R., Whittaker, S. G., & Miller-Shaffer, H. (1986). The development and evaluation of a reading test for low vision individuals with macular loss. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 80, 785-789.
8. Barlow, H. B. (1978). The efficiency of detecting changes of density in random dot patterns. Vision Research, 18, 637-650.
9. Barlow, H. B., & Reeves, B. C. (1979). The versatility and absolute efficiency of detecting mirror symmetry in random dot displays. Vision Research, 19, 783-793.
10. Beckmann, P. J., & Legge, G. E. (1996). Psychophysics of reading: XIV. The page-navigation problem in using magnifiers. Vision Research, 36, 3723-3733.
11. Bennett, P. J., & Banks, M. S. (1991). The effects of contrast, spatial scale, and orientation on foveal and peripheral phase discrimination. Vision Research, 31, 1759-1786.
12. Bouma, H. (1970). Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature, 226, 177-178.
13. Braje, W. L., Tjan, B. S., & Legge, G. E. (1995). Human efficiency for recognizing and detecting low-pass filtered objects. Vision Research, 35, 2955-2966.
14. Bullimore, M. A., & Bailey, I. (1995). Reading and eye movements in age-related maculopathy. Optometry and Vision Science, 72, 125-138.
15. Burgess, A., & Barlow, H. B. (1983). The precision of numerosity discrimination in arrays of random dots. Vision Research, 23, 811-820.
16. Caramazza, A., & Hillis, A. E. (1990). Spatial representation of words in the brain implied by studies of a unilateral neglect patient. Nature, 346, 267-269.
17. Carpenter, P. A., & Just, M. A. (1977). Reading comprehension as eyes see it. In M. A. Just & P. A. Carpenter (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension (pp. 109-139). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
18. Carroll, J. B., Davies, P., & Richman, B. (1971). The American Heritage word frequency book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
19. Carver, R. P. (1990). Reading rate: A review of research and theory. San Diego: Academic Press.
20. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.
21. Coeffe, C., & O'Regan, J. K. (1987). Reducing the influence of non- target stimuli on saccade accuracy: Predictability and latency effects. Vision Research, 27, 227-240.
22. Cummings, R. W., Whittaker, S. G., Watson, G. R., & Budd, J. M. (1985). Scanning characters and reading with a central scotoma. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, 62, 833-843.
23. Dickinson, C., & Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1991). Simulated visual impairment: Effects on text comprehension and reading speed. Clinical Vision Sciences, 6, 301-308.
24. Epelboim, J., Booth, J. R., & Steinman, R. M. (1994). Reading unspaced text: Implications for theories of reading eye movements. Vision Research, 34, 1735-1766.
25. Faye, E. E. (Ed.). (1984). Clinical low vision. Boston: Little, Brown.
26. Ferris, F. L. (1983). Senile macular degeneration: Review of epidemiologic features. American Journal of Epidemiology, 118, 132-149.
27. Fitts, P. M. (1954). The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47, 381-391.
28. Geisler, W. S. (1989). Sequential ideal-observer analysis of visual discriminations. Psychological Review, 96, 267-314.
29. Goodrich, G. L., & Quillman, R. D. (1977). Training eccentric viewing. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 71, 377-381.
30. Guez, J., le Gargasson, J., Rigaudiere, F., & O'Regan, J. K. (1993). Is there a systematic location for the pseudo-fovea in patients with central scotoma? Vision Research, 33, 1271-1279.
31. He, P., & Kowler, E. (1991). Saccadic localization of eccentric forms. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 8, 440-449.
32. Hecht, S., Shlaer, S., & Pirenne, M. H. (1942). Energy, quanta, and vision. Journal of General Physiology, 25, 819-840.
33. Heinen, S. J., & Skavenski, A. A. (1992). Adaptation of saccades and fixation to bilateral foveal lesions in adult monkey. Vision Research, 32, 365-373.
34. Hess, R. F., & Hayes, A. (1994). The coding of spatial position by the human visual system: Effects of spatial scale and retinal eccentricity. Vision Research, 34, 625-643.
35. Hilton, J. (1934). Goodbye, Mr. Chips. Boston: Little, Brown.
36. Hyona, J. (1995). Do irregular letter combinations attract readers' attention? Evidence from fixation locations in words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 68-81.
37. Jackson, M. D., & McClelland, J. L. (1979). Processing determinants of reading speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 151-181.
38. Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, 87, 329-354.
39. Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
40. Kemper, S. (1992). Language and aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 213-270). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
41. Kersten, D. (1990). Statistical limits to image understanding. In C. Blakemore (Ed.), Vision: Coding and efficiency. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
42. Klein, S. A., & Levi, D. M. (1987). The position sense of the peripheral retina. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 4, 1544-1553.
43. Klitz, T. S., & Legge, G. E. (1994). Modeling the visual span in reading [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 35(Suppl. 4), 1949.
44. Klitz, T. S., Mansfield, J. S., & Legge, G. E. (1995). Reading speed is affected by font transitions [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 36(Suppl. 4), S670.
45. Kowler, E., & Blaser, E. (1995). The accuracy and precision of saccades to small and large targets. Vision Research, 35, 1741-1754.
46. Legge, G. E. (1992). An ideal observer model of reading [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 33(Suppl. 4), 1414.
47. Legge, G. E. (1995). Mr. Chips (Version 4.3) [Computer software]. Minneapolis, MN: Author.
48. Legge, G. E., Ahn, S. J., Klitz, T. S., & Luebker, A. (1995). Psychophysics of reading: XVI. The visual span in normal and low vision. Manuscript submitted for publication.
49. Legge, G. E., Gu, Y., & Luebker, A. (1989). Efficiency of graphical perception. Perception & Psychophysics, 46, 365-374.
50. Legge, G. E., Parish, D. H., Luebker, A., & Wurm, L. H. (1990). Psychophysics of reading: XI. Comparing color contrast and luminance contrast. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 7, 2002-2010.
51. Legge, G. E., Pelli, D. G., Rubin, G. S., & Schleske, M. M. (1985). Psychophysics of reading: I. Normal vision. Vision Research, 25, 239-252.
52. Legge, G. E., Ross, J. A., Isenberg, L. M., & LaMay, J. M. (1992). Psychophysics of reading: XII. Clinical predictors of low-vision reading speed. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 33, 677-687.
53. Legge, G. E., Ross, J. A., Luebker, A., & LaMay, J. M. (1989). Psychophysics of reading: VIII. The Minnesota low-vision reading test. Optometry and Vision Science, 66, 843-853.
54. Legge, G. E., & Rubin, G. S. (1986). Psychophysics of reading: IV. Wavelength effects in normal and low vision. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 3, 40-51.
55. Legge, G. E., Rubin, G. S., & Luebker, A. (1987). Psychophysics of reading: V. The role of contrast in normal vision. Vision Research, 27, 1165-1171.
56. Legge, G. E., Rubin, G. S., Pelli, D. G., & Schleske, M. M. (1985). Psychophysics of reading: II. Low vision. Vision Research, 25, 253-266.
57. Lima, S. D. (1993). Word-initial letter sequences and reading. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 139-142.
58. Liu, Z., Knill, D. C., & Kersten, D. (1995). Object classification for human and ideal observers. Vision Research, 35, 549-568.
59. Mansfield, J. S., Ahn, S. J., Legge, G. E., & Luebker, A. (1993). A new reading-acuity chart for normal and low vision: Ophthalmic and visual optics/noninvasive assessment of the visual system. Optical Society of America Technical Digest, 3, 232-235.
60. Mansfield, J. S., Legge, G. E., & Bane, M. (1996). Psychophysics of reading: XV. Font effects in normal and low vision. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 37, 1492-1501.
61. Marr, D. (1982). Vision. San Francisco: Freeman.
62. McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407.
63. McConkie, G. W. Kerr, P. W., Reddix, M. D., & Zola, D. (1988). Eye-movement control during reading: I. The location of initial eye fixations on words. Vision Research, 28, 1107-1118.
64. McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1975). The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 16, 578-586.
65. McMahon, T. T., Hansen, M., Stelmack, J., Oliver, P., & Viana, M. A. (1993). Saccade eye movements as a measure of the effect of low vision rehabilitation on reading rate. Optometry and Vision Science, 70, 506-510.
66. Miller, G. A., & Selfridge, J. A. (1950). Verbal context and recall of meaningful material. American Journal of Psychology, 63, 176-185.
67. Morrison, R. E. (1984). Manipulation of stimulus onset delay in reading: Evidence for parallel programming of saccades. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 667-682.
68. Morrison, R. E., & Rayner, K. (1981). Saccade size in reading depends on character spaces and not visual angle. Perception & Psychophysics, 30, 395-396.
69. Morton, J. (1964). The effects of context upon speed of reading, eye movements and eye-voice span. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 16, 340-354.
70. Nilsson, U. L. (1990). Visual rehabilitation with and without educational training in the use of optical aids and residual vision: A prospective study of patients with advanced age-related macular degeneration. Clinical Vision Sciences, 6, 3-10.
71. O'Regan, J. K. (1990). Eye movements and reading. In E. Kowler (Ed.), Eye Movements and their role in visual and cognitive processes (pp. 395-453). New York: Elsevier Science.
72. O'Regan, J. K. (1991). Understanding visual search and reading using the concept of stimulus "grain." IPO Annual Progress Report, 26, 96-108.
73. O'Regan, J. K., Levy-Schoen, A., & Jacobs, A. M. (1983). The effect of visibility on eye-movement parameters in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 34, 457-464.
74. Parish, D. H., & Legge, G. E. (1988). The effect of jitter on reading rate and visual acuity [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 29(Suppl. 3), 141.
75. Parish, D. H., & Sperling, G. (1991). Object spatial frequencies, retinal spatial frequencies, noise, and the efficiency of letter discrimination. Vision Research, 31, 1399-1415.
76. Peli, E. (1986). Control of eye movements with peripheral vision: Implications for training of eccentric viewing. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, 63, 113-118.
77. Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore, D. C. (in press). Identifying letters. Vision Research.
78. Pelli, D. G., Farell, B., & Moore, D. C. (1995). The role of letters in recognizing words. Manuscript submitted for publication.
79. Ramachandran, V. S. (1992). Filling in gaps in perception: I. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 199-205.
80. Ramachandran, V. S. (1993). Filling in gaps in perception: II. Scotomas and phantom limbs. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 56-65.
81. Rayner, K. (1978). Foveal and parafoveal cues in reading. In J. Requin (Ed.), Attention and performance: VII (pp. 149-161). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
82. Rayner, K. (1993). Eye movements in reading: Recent developments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 81-85.
83. Rayner, K., & Bertera, J. H. (1979). Reading without a fovea. Science, 206, 468-469.
84. Rayner, K., & McConkie, G. W. (1976). What guides a reader's eye movements? Vision Research, 16, 829-837.
85. Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D. (1980). Integrating information across eye movements. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 206-226.
86. Rayner, K., & Morris, R. K. (1992). Eye movement control in reading: Evidence against semantic preprocessing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18, 163-172.
87. Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychology of reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
88. Rayner, K., Well, A. D., Pollatsek, A., & Bertera, J. H. (1982). The availability of useful information to the right of fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 31, 337-350.
89. Reicher, G. M. (1969). Perceptual recognition as a function of meaningfulness of stimulus material. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 275-280.
90. Rovamo, J., & Virsu, V. (1979). An estimation and application of the human cortical magnification factor. Experimental Brain Research, 37, 495-510.
91. Rubin, G. S., & Legge, G. E. (1989). Psychophysics of reading: VI. The role of contrast in low-vision. Vision Research, 29, 79-91.
92. Rubin, G. S., & Turano, K. (1994). Low vision reading with sequential word presentation. Vision Research, 34, 1723-1733.
93. Schlingensiepen, K.-H., Campbell, F. W., Legge, G. E., & Walker, T. D. (1986). The importance of eye movements in the analysis of simple patterns. Vision Research, 26, 1111-1117.
94. Schuchard, R. A., & Fletcher, D. (1994). Preferred retinal locus: A review with applications in low vision rehabilitation. Ophthalmology Clinics of North America, 7, 243-255.
95. Shannon, C. E. (1951). Prediction and entropy of printed English. Bell System Technical Journal, 30, 50-64.
96. Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
97. Shapley, R., & Enroth-Cugell, C. (1984). Visual adaptation and retinal gain controls. In N. Osborne & G. Chader (Eds.), Progress in retinal research (Vol. 3, pp. 263-346). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
98. Sloan, L. L. (1977). Reading aids for the partially sighted: A systematic procedure for prescribing reading aids. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
99. Snellen (1864). Test-types for the determination of the acuteness of vision (2nd ed.). Utrecht, The Netherlands: P. W. van de Weijer.
100. Solomon, J. A., & Pelli, D. G. (1994). The visual filter mediating letter identification. Nature, 369, 395-397.
101. Spragins, A. B., Lefton, L. A., & Fisher, D. F. (1976). Eye movements while reading and searching spatially transformed text: A developmental examination. Memory & Cognition, 4, 36-42.
102. Timberlake, G. T, Mainster, M. A., Peli, E., Augliere, R. A., Essock, E. A., & Arend, L. E. (1986). Reading with a macular scotoma: I. Retinal location of scotoma and fixation area. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 27, 1137-1147.
103. Timberlake, G. T., Peli, E., Essock, E. A., & Augliere, R. A. (1987). Reading with a macular scotoma: II. Retinal locus for scanning text. investigative Ophthalmology and visual Science, 28, 1268-1274.
104. Tinker, M. A. (1963). Legibility of print. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
105. Tjan, B. S., Braje, W. L., Legge, G. E., & Kersten, D. (1995). Human efficiency for recognizing 3-D objects in luminance noise. Vision Research, 35, 3053-3069.
106. Tjan, B. S., Legge, G. E., & Braje, W. L. (1995). Quantifying stimulus information for recognition [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 36(Suppl. 4), S670.
107. Trauzettel-Klosinski, S., Teschner, C., Tornow, R.-P., & Zrenner, E. (1994). Reading strategies in normal subjects and in patients with macular scotoma assessed by two new methods of registration. Neuroophthalmology, 14, 15-30.
108. Turbo-C (Version 1.5) [Computer programming language]. (1987). Scotts Valley, CA: Borland International.
109. Underwood, G., Clews, S., & Everatt, J. (1990). How do readers know where to look next? Local information distributions influence eye fixations. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 42A, 39-65.
110. van Opstal, A. J., & van Gisbergen, J. A. M. (1989). Scatter in the metrics of saccades and properties of the collicular motor map. Vision Research, 29, 1183-1196.
111. Virsu, V., & Rovamo, J. (1979). Visual resolution, contrast sensitivity, and the cortical magnification function. Experimental Brain Research, 37, 475-494.
112. White, J., & Bedell, H. (1990). The oculomotor reference in humans with bilateral macular disease. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 31, 1149-1161.
113. Whittaker, S. G., Cummings, R., & Swieson, L. (1991). Saccade control without a fovea. Vision Research, 31, 2209-2218.
114. Whittaker, S. G., & Lovie-Kitchin, J. (1993). Visual requirements for reading. Optometry and Vision Science, 70, 54-65.
115. World Health Organization. (1966). Blindness information collected from various sources. Epidemiology and Vital Statistics Report, 19, 427-511.
116. Zingale, C. M., & Kowler, E. (1987). Planning sequences of saccades. Vision Research, 27, 1337-1341.