Values and the vote: Linking issue interpretations to the process of candidate choice

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 357-387

  Shah, Dhavan V ^a   Domke, David ^a   Wackman, Daniel B ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031161513     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400209     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
2. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
3. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
4. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
5. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
6. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
7. For research that has explored the sociological and political impact of "moral" issues, see Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, "The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict," Journal of Politics 58 (May 1996): 332-49; Alan I. Abramowitz, "It's Abortion, Stupid: Policy Voting in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journal of Politics 57 (February 1995): 176-86; Kristen Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern," Social Science Quarterly 65 (December 1984): 1065-711; Daniel V. A. Olson and Jackson W. Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics: Religious Elites and the Public," Social Forces 70 (March 1992): 765-86; Robert Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism (NY: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989); R. Stephen Warner, New Wine in Old Wineskins: Evangelicals and Liberals in a Small-Town Church (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
8. Vincent Price and David Tewksbury, "News Values and Public Opinion: A Theoretical Account of Media Priming and Framing" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, 1995), 31.
9. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
10. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
11. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
12. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
13. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
14. Jan Schaffer and Stanley Cloud, eds. The Citizens Election Project (College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press, 1996); Jan Schaffer and Edward D. Miller, eds., Civic Journalism: Six Case Studies (Washington, DC: Pew Center for Civic Journalism, 1995); Marcus Brewer and Maxwell McCombs, "Setting the Community Agenda," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 7-16; Jay Rosen, "Making Things More Public: On the Political Responsibility of the Media Intellectual," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (December 1994): 363-88; Everette E. Dennis, Wendy Zeligson Adler, Martha FitzSimon, John Pavlik, Edward C. Pease, Deborah Rogers, Dirk Smillie, and Mark Thalhimer, The Finish Line: Covering the Campaign's Final Days (NY: The Freedom Forum, 1993); Edward D. Miller, The Charlotte Project: Helping Citizens Take Back Democracy (St. Petersburg: Poynter Institute, 1994).
15. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
16. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
17. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
18. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
19. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
20. In general, most research on issue voting has focused on such factors as issue salience, economic determinants, and rational choices. For research on issue salience, see, for example, George Rabinowitz, James W. Prothro, and William Jacoby, "Salience as a Factor in the Impact of Issues on Candidate Evaluation," Journal of Politics 44 (February 1982): 41-63; Howard Lavine, John L. Sullivan, Eugene Borgida, and Cynthia J. Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," Political Psychology 17 (June 1996): 293-316. For research on the economic determinants of voting, see, for example, Michaels. Lewis-Beck, Economics and Elections: The Major Western Democracies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Gregory B. Markus, "The Impact of Personal and National Economic Conditions on the Presidential Vote: A Pooled Cross-Sectional Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 32 (February 1988): 137-54. For research on voting as rational choices, see, for example, Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (NY: Harper & Row, 1957); James W. Endersby and Melvin J. Hinich, "The Stability of Voter Perceptions," Mathematical and Computer Modelling 16 (August/September 1992): 67-83.
21. James R. Beniger and Jodi A. Gusek, "The Cognitive Revolution in Public Opinion and Communication Research," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: Guilford Press, 1995), 217-48; Susan Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition (NY: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1991); John Sullivan and Wendy Rahn, "The Contours of Political Psychology: Situating Research on Political Information Processing," in Citizens and Information: Perspectives from Political Psychology, ed. James Kuklinski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press).
22. James R. Beniger and Jodi A. Gusek, "The Cognitive Revolution in Public Opinion and Communication Research," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: Guilford Press, 1995), 217-48; Susan Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition (NY: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1991); John Sullivan and Wendy Rahn, "The Contours of Political Psychology: Situating Research on Political Information Processing," in Citizens and Information: Perspectives from Political Psychology, ed. James Kuklinski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press).
23. James R. Beniger and Jodi A. Gusek, "The Cognitive Revolution in Public Opinion and Communication Research," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: Guilford Press, 1995), 217-48; Susan Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition (NY: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1991); John Sullivan and Wendy Rahn, "The Contours of Political Psychology: Situating Research on Political Information Processing," in Citizens and Information: Perspectives from Political Psychology, ed. James Kuklinski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press).
24. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
25. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
26. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
27. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
28. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
29. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
30. Susan T. Fiske and Donald R. Kinder, "Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use: Evidence from Political Cognition," in Personality, Cognition and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 131-90; Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); E. Tory Higgins and John A. Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception," Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 369-425; John A. Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing: Implications for Communication and Affect," in Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, ed. Lewis Donohew, Howard E. Sypher, and E. Tory Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988), 9-32; E. Tory Higgins and Gillian A. King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs: Information-Processing Consequences of Individual and Contextual Variability," in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, ed. Nancy Cantor and John F. Kihlstrom (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 69-121; Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
31. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull, Memory and Cognition in its Social Context (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1989); Roger Tourangeau and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement," Psychological Bulletin 103 (May 1988): 299-314; Higgins and Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception"; Higgins and King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs"; Sung-tai Hong and Robert S. Wyer, "Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information about Its Specific Attributes," Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 277-88.
32. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull, Memory and Cognition in its Social Context (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1989); Roger Tourangeau and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement," Psychological Bulletin 103 (May 1988): 299-314; Higgins and Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception"; Higgins and King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs"; Sung-tai Hong and Robert S. Wyer, "Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information about Its Specific Attributes," Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 277-88.
33. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull, Memory and Cognition in its Social Context (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1989); Roger Tourangeau and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement," Psychological Bulletin 103 (May 1988): 299-314; Higgins and Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception"; Higgins and King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs"; Sung-tai Hong and Robert S. Wyer, "Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information about Its Specific Attributes," Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 277-88.
34. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull, Memory and Cognition in its Social Context (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1989); Roger Tourangeau and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement," Psychological Bulletin 103 (May 1988): 299-314; Higgins and Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception"; Higgins and King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs"; Sung-tai Hong and Robert S. Wyer, "Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information about Its Specific Attributes," Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 277-88.
35. Robert S. Wyer and Thomas K. Srull, Memory and Cognition in its Social Context (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1989); Roger Tourangeau and Kenneth A. Rasinski, "Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement," Psychological Bulletin 103 (May 1988): 299-314; Higgins and Bargh, "Social Cognition and Social Perception"; Higgins and King, "Accessibility of Social Constructs"; Sung-tai Hong and Robert S. Wyer, "Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information about Its Specific Attributes," Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 277-88.
36. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
37. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
38. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
39. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
40. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
41. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
42. Russell H. Fazio, "How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?" in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: foundations of Social Behavior, ed. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory Higgins (NY: Guilford, 1986), 204-243; Russell H. Fazio, "On the Power and Functionality of Attitudes: The Role of Attitude Accessibility," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 153-79; Bargh, "Automatic Information Processing"; Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluation: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210; Richard R. Lau, "Construct Accessibility and Electoral Choice," Political Behavior 11 (March 1989): 5-32; Shelly Chaiken, "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (November 1980): 752-66; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "The Effects of Involvement on Responses to Argument Quantity and Quality: Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (January 1984): 69-81.
43. David E. Rumelhart, "Notes on a Schema for Stories," in Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science, ed. Daniel G. Bobrow and Allan Collins (NY: Academic Press, 1975), 211-36; David E. Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony, "The Representation of Knowledge in Memory," in Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge, ed. Richard C. Anderson, Rand J. Spiro, and William E. Montague (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1977), 99-135; Shanto Iyengar and Adam Simon, "News Coverage of the Gulf Crisis and Public Opinion: A Study of Agenda-Setting, Priming, and Framing," in Taken by Storm, ed. W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 167-85.
44. David E. Rumelhart, "Notes on a Schema for Stories," in Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science, ed. Daniel G. Bobrow and Allan Collins (NY: Academic Press, 1975), 211-36; David E. Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony, "The Representation of Knowledge in Memory," in Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge, ed. Richard C. Anderson, Rand J. Spiro, and William E. Montague (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1977), 99-135; Shanto Iyengar and Adam Simon, "News Coverage of the Gulf Crisis and Public Opinion: A Study of Agenda-Setting, Priming, and Framing," in Taken by Storm, ed. W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 167-85.
45. David E. Rumelhart, "Notes on a Schema for Stories," in Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science, ed. Daniel G. Bobrow and Allan Collins (NY: Academic Press, 1975), 211-36; David E. Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony, "The Representation of Knowledge in Memory," in Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge, ed. Richard C. Anderson, Rand J. Spiro, and William E. Montague (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1977), 99-135; Shanto Iyengar and Adam Simon, "News Coverage of the Gulf Crisis and Public Opinion: A Study of Agenda-Setting, Priming, and Framing," in Taken by Storm, ed. W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 167-85.
46. John Zaller and Stanley Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences," American Journal of Political Science 36 (August 1992): 579-616; see also Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52; George F. Bishop, Robert W. Oldendick, and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, "What Must My Interest in Politics Be if I Just Told You 'I Don't Know'?" Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (summer 1984): 510-19; Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
47. John Zaller and Stanley Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences," American Journal of Political Science 36 (August 1992): 579-616; see also Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52; George F. Bishop, Robert W. Oldendick, and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, "What Must My Interest in Politics Be if I Just Told You 'I Don't Know'?" Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (summer 1984): 510-19; Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
48. John Zaller and Stanley Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences," American Journal of Political Science 36 (August 1992): 579-616; see also Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52; George F. Bishop, Robert W. Oldendick, and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, "What Must My Interest in Politics Be if I Just Told You 'I Don't Know'?" Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (summer 1984): 510-19; Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
49. John Zaller and Stanley Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences," American Journal of Political Science 36 (August 1992): 579-616; see also Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52; George F. Bishop, Robert W. Oldendick, and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, "What Must My Interest in Politics Be if I Just Told You 'I Don't Know'?" Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (summer 1984): 510-19; Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
50. John Zaller and Stanley Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences," American Journal of Political Science 36 (August 1992): 579-616; see also Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52; George F. Bishop, Robert W. Oldendick, and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, "What Must My Interest in Politics Be if I Just Told You 'I Don't Know'?" Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (summer 1984): 510-19; Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
51. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, "Freezing Out the Public: Elite and Media Framing of the U.S. Anti-Nuclear Movement," Political Communication 10, no. 2 (1993): 151-67; William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 1-37.
52. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, "Freezing Out the Public: Elite and Media Framing of the U.S. Anti-Nuclear Movement," Political Communication 10, no. 2 (1993): 151-67; William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 1-37.
53. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, "Freezing Out the Public: Elite and Media Framing of the U.S. Anti-Nuclear Movement," Political Communication 10, no. 2 (1993): 151-67; William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 1-37.
54. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, "Freezing Out the Public: Elite and Media Framing of the U.S. Anti-Nuclear Movement," Political Communication 10, no. 2 (1993): 151-67; William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 1-37.
55. Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and William E. Loges, "Making Choices: Media Roles in the Construction of Value-Choices," in The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 8, ed. C. Seligman, J. Olson, and M. Zanna (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1997), 279; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Gerard J. Power, K Kendall Guthrie, and H. Ross Waring, "Value-Framing Abortion in the United States: An Application of Media System Dependency Theory," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (autumn 1990): 249-73; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Milton Rokeach, and Joel W. Grube, The Great American Values Test: Influencing Behavior and Belief through Television (NY; Free Press, 1984).
56. Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and William E. Loges, "Making Choices: Media Roles in the Construction of Value-Choices," in The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 8, ed. C. Seligman, J. Olson, and M. Zanna (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1997), 279; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Gerard J. Power, K Kendall Guthrie, and H. Ross Waring, "Value-Framing Abortion in the United States: An Application of Media System Dependency Theory," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (autumn 1990): 249-73; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Milton Rokeach, and Joel W. Grube, The Great American Values Test: Influencing Behavior and Belief through Television (NY; Free Press, 1984).
57. Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and William E. Loges, "Making Choices: Media Roles in the Construction of Value-Choices," in The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 8, ed. C. Seligman, J. Olson, and M. Zanna (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1997), 279; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Gerard J. Power, K Kendall Guthrie, and H. Ross Waring, "Value-Framing Abortion in the United States:
58. W. Russell Neuman, Marion R. Just, and Ann M. Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 76-77; see also Graber, Processing the News; William A. Gamson, David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Theodore Sasson, "Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality," Annual Review of Sociology 18 (1992): 373-93; Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse," Political Communication 10 (1993): 55-76.
59. W. Russell Neuman, Marion R. Just, and Ann M. Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 76-77; see also Graber, Processing the News; William A. Gamson, David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Theodore Sasson, "Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality," Annual Review of Sociology 18 (1992): 373-93; Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse," Political Communication 10 (1993): 55-76.
60. W. Russell Neuman, Marion R. Just, and Ann M. Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 76-77; see also Graber, Processing the News; William A. Gamson, David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Theodore Sasson, "Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality," Annual Review of Sociology 18 (1992): 373-93; Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse," Political Communication 10 (1993): 55-76.
61. W. Russell Neuman, Marion R. Just, and Ann M. Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 76-77; see also Graber, Processing the News; William A. Gamson, David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Theodore Sasson, "Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality," Annual Review of Sociology 18 (1992): 373-93; Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse," Political Communication 10 (1993): 55-76.
62. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, "Choice, Values, and Frames," American Psychologist 39 (April 1984): 341-50; see also Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice," Science 211 (January 1981): 453-58; Richard R. Lau, Richard A. Smith, and Susan T. Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion," Journal of Politics 53 (August 1991): 644-75.
63. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, "Choice, Values, and Frames," American Psychologist 39 (April 1984): 341-50; see also Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice," Science 211 (January 1981): 453-58; Richard R. Lau, Richard A. Smith, and Susan T. Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion," Journal of Politics 53 (August 1991): 644-75.
64. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, "Choice, Values, and Frames," American Psychologist 39 (April 1984): 341-50; see also Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice," Science 211 (January 1981): 453-58; Richard R. Lau, Richard A. Smith, and Susan T. Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion," Journal of Politics 53 (August 1991): 644-75.
65. Dhavan V. Shah, David Domke, and Daniel Wackman, "'To Thine Own Self Be True': Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies," Communication Research 23 (October 1996): 509-561.
66. Mark Snyder and Kenneth G. DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion," in Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5, ed. Mark P. Zanna, James M. Olson, and C. Peter Herman (Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1987), 108; see also Philip E. Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 129-51; Gregory M. Herek, "The Instrumentality of Attitudes: Towards a Neo-functional Theory," Journal of Social Issues 42 (summer 1986): 99-114; Anthony R. Pratkanis and Anthony G. Greenwald, "A Sociocognitive Model of Attitude Structure and Function," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 22, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1989), 245-85.
67. Mark Snyder and Kenneth G. DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion," in Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5, ed. Mark P. Zanna, James M. Olson, and C. Peter Herman (Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1987), 108; see also Philip E. Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 129-51; Gregory M. Herek, "The Instrumentality of Attitudes: Towards a Neo-functional Theory," Journal of Social Issues 42 (summer 1986): 99-114; Anthony R. Pratkanis and Anthony G. Greenwald, "A Sociocognitive Model of Attitude Structure and Function," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 22, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1989), 245-85.
68. Mark Snyder and Kenneth G. DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion," in Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5, ed. Mark P. Zanna, James M. Olson, and C. Peter Herman (Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1987), 108; see also Philip E. Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 129-51; Gregory M. Herek, "The Instrumentality of Attitudes: Towards a Neo-functional Theory," Journal of Social Issues 42 (summer 1986): 99-114; Anthony R. Pratkanis and Anthony G. Greenwald, "A Sociocognitive Model of Attitude Structure and Function," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 22, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1989), 245-85.
69. Mark Snyder and Kenneth G. DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion," in Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 5, ed. Mark P. Zanna, James M. Olson, and C. Peter Herman (Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1987), 108; see also Philip E. Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989), 129-51; Gregory M. Herek, "The Instrumentality of Attitudes: Towards a Neo-functional Theory," Journal of Social Issues 42 (summer 1986): 99-114; Anthony R. Pratkanis and Anthony G. Greenwald, "A Sociocognitive Model of Attitude Structure and Function," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 22, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1989), 245-85.
70. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, 13.
71. Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968); Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (NY: The Free Press, 1973); Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Blair T. Johnson and Alice H. Eagly, "Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Metaanalysis," Psychological Bulletin 106 (September 1989): 290-314; David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80.
72. Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968); Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (NY: The Free Press, 1973); Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Blair T. Johnson and Alice H. Eagly, "Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Metaanalysis," Psychological Bulletin 106 (September 1989): 290-314; David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80.
73. Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968); Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (NY: The Free Press, 1973); Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Blair T. Johnson and Alice H. Eagly, "Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Metaanalysis," Psychological Bulletin 106 (September 1989): 290-314; David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80.
74. Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968); Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (NY: The Free Press, 1973); Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Blair T. Johnson and Alice H. Eagly, "Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Metaanalysis," Psychological Bulletin 106 (September 1989): 290-314; David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80.
75. Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968); Milton Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (NY: The Free Press, 1973); Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Blair T. Johnson and Alice H. Eagly, "Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Metaanalysis," Psychological Bulletin 106 (September 1989): 290-314; David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80.
76. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
77. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
78. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
79. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
80. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
81. Louisa J. Lorentzen, "Evangelical Life Style Concerns Expressed in Political Action," Sociological Analysis 41 (summer 1980): 144-54; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood; Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern"; Olson and Carroll, "Religiously Based Politics"; Wuthnow, The Struggle for America's Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals, and Secularism.
82. David Domke and Dhavan V. Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies: A New Perspective on 'Issue-Oriented' Election Coverage," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (spring 1995): 45-71.
83. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
84. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
85. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
86. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
87. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
88. Claude M. Steele, "The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self," in Advances in Experimental Psychology, vol. 21, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1988), 261-302; William B. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self," in Psychological Perspectives on the Self, vol. 2, ed. Jerry M. Suls and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1984), 33-66; Anthony G. Greenwald, "Why Attitudes Are Important: Defining Attitudes and Attitude Theory 20 Years Later," in Attitude Structure and Function, ed. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989); William B. Swann and Stephen J. Read, "Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback that Fits," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 (December 1981): 1119-1128; Robert P. Abelson, "Conviction," American Psychologist 43 (April 1988): 267-75; Kristen R. Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory," Political Psychology 16 (March 1995): 1-21.
89. Philip E. Tetlock, "A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (April 1986): 819.
90. See, for example, Jagdish Sheth and Bruce L. Newman, "A Model of Primary Voter Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research 12 (September 1985): 178-87; Robin M. Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987); Paul Slovic, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, "Decision Making," in Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology; Learning and Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Richard C. Atkinson, Richard J. Herrnstein, Gardner Lindzey, and Robert D. Luce (NY: Wiley, 1988), 673-738; Oswald Huber, "Information-Processing Operators in Decision Making," in Process and Structure in Human Decision Making, ed. Henry Montgomery and Ola Svenson (Chichester: Wiley, 1989), 3-22; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies."
91. See, for example, Jagdish Sheth and Bruce L. Newman, "A Model of Primary Voter Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research 12 (September 1985): 178-87; Robin M. Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987); Paul Slovic, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, "Decision Making," in Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology; Learning and Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Richard C. Atkinson, Richard J. Herrnstein, Gardner Lindzey, and Robert D. Luce (NY: Wiley, 1988), 673-738; Oswald Huber, "Information-Processing Operators in Decision Making," in Process and Structure in Human Decision Making, ed. Henry Montgomery and Ola Svenson (Chichester: Wiley, 1989), 3-22; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies."
92. See, for example, Jagdish Sheth and Bruce L. Newman, "A Model of Primary Voter Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research 12 (September 1985): 178-87; Robin M. Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987); Paul Slovic, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, "Decision Making," in Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology; Learning and Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Richard C. Atkinson, Richard J. Herrnstein, Gardner Lindzey, and Robert D. Luce (NY: Wiley, 1988), 673-738; Oswald Huber, "Information-Processing Operators in Decision Making," in Process and Structure in Human Decision Making, ed. Henry Montgomery and Ola Svenson (Chichester: Wiley, 1989), 3-22; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies."
93. See, for example, Jagdish Sheth and Bruce L. Newman, "A Model of Primary Voter Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research 12 (September 1985): 178-87; Robin M. Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987); Paul Slovic, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, "Decision Making," in Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology; Learning and Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Richard C. Atkinson, Richard J. Herrnstein, Gardner Lindzey, and Robert D. Luce (NY: Wiley, 1988), 673-738; Oswald Huber, "Information-Processing Operators in Decision Making," in Process and Structure in Human Decision Making, ed. Henry Montgomery and Ola Svenson (Chichester: Wiley, 1989), 3-22; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies."
94. See, for example, Jagdish Sheth and Bruce L. Newman, "A Model of Primary Voter Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research 12 (September 1985): 178-87; Robin M. Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1987); Paul Slovic, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, "Decision Making," in Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology; Learning and Cognition, vol. 2, ed. Richard C. Atkinson, Richard J. Herrnstein, Gardner Lindzey, and Robert D. Luce (NY: Wiley, 1988), 673-738; Oswald Huber, "Information-Processing Operators in Decision Making," in Process and Structure in Human Decision Making, ed. Henry Montgomery and Ola Svenson (Chichester: Wiley, 1989), 3-22; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies."
95. John W. Payne, James R. Bettman, and Eric J. Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992): 92; see also James R. Bettman, An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979); Robert S. Billings and Stephan A. Marcus, "Measures of Compensatory and Noncompensatory Models of Decision Behavior: Process Tracing versus Policy Capturing," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31 (June 1983): 331-52; Jane Beattie and Jonathan Baron, "Investigating the Effect of Stimulus Range on Attribute Weight," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17 (May 1991): 571-85.
96. John W. Payne, James R. Bettman, and Eric J. Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992): 92; see also James R. Bettman, An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979); Robert S. Billings and Stephan A. Marcus, "Measures of Compensatory and Noncompensatory Models of Decision Behavior: Process Tracing versus Policy Capturing," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31 (June 1983): 331-52; Jane Beattie and Jonathan Baron, "Investigating the Effect of Stimulus Range on Attribute Weight," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17 (May 1991): 571-85.
97. John W. Payne, James R. Bettman, and Eric J. Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992): 92; see also James R. Bettman, An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979); Robert S. Billings and Stephan A. Marcus, "Measures of Compensatory and Noncompensatory Models of Decision Behavior: Process Tracing versus Policy Capturing," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31 (June 1983): 331-52; Jane Beattie and Jonathan Baron, "Investigating the Effect of Stimulus Range on Attribute Weight," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17 (May 1991): 571-85.
98. John W. Payne, James R. Bettman, and Eric J. Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992): 92; see also James R. Bettman, An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979); Robert S. Billings and Stephan A. Marcus, "Measures of Compensatory and Noncompensatory Models of Decision Behavior: Process Tracing versus Policy Capturing," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31 (June 1983): 331-52; Jane Beattie and Jonathan Baron, "Investigating the Effect of Stimulus Range on Attribute Weight," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17 (May 1991): 571-85.
99. According to the spatial theory of voting, candidates are perceived as points in a multi-dimensional space. Along each issue dimension voters must compute the distance between their position and each candidate's position. These issue "distances" are weighed and summed to produce an overall measure of distance between voter and candidate, and the candidate found to be closest to the voter is chosen. See John A. Herstein, "Keeping the Voter's Limit in Mind: A Cognitive Processing Analysis of Decisionmaking in Voting," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (December 1981): 843-61; Melvin J. Hinich and Walker Pollard, "A New Approach to the Spatial Theory of Electoral Competition," American Journal of Political Science 25 (May 1981): 323-33.
100. According to the spatial theory of voting, candidates are perceived as points in a multi-dimensional space. Along each issue dimension voters must compute the distance between their position and each candidate's position. These issue "distances" are weighed and summed to produce an overall measure of distance between voter and candidate, and the candidate found to be closest to the voter is chosen. See John A. Herstein, "Keeping the Voter's Limit in Mind: A Cognitive Processing Analysis of Decisionmaking in Voting," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (December 1981): 843-61; Melvin J. Hinich and Walker Pollard, "A New Approach to the Spatial Theory of Electoral Competition," American Journal of Political Science 25 (May 1981): 323-33.
101. Donald E. Stokes, "Spatial Models of Party Competition," American Political Science Review 57 (June 1963): 368-77; George Rabinowitz, "On the Nature of Political Issues: Insights from a Spatial Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 22 (November 1978): 793-817; James Onken, Reid Hastie, and William Revelle, "Individual Differences in the Use of Simplification Strategies in a Complex Decision-Making Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11 (February 1985): 14-27; George Rabinowitz and Stuart Elaine Macdonald, "A Directional Theory of Issue Voting," American Political Science Review 83 (March 1989): 93-121.
102. Donald E. Stokes, "Spatial Models of Party Competition," American Political Science Review 57 (June 1963): 368-77; George Rabinowitz, "On the Nature of Political Issues: Insights from a Spatial Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 22 (November 1978): 793-817; James Onken, Reid Hastie, and William Revelle, "Individual Differences in the Use of Simplification Strategies in a Complex Decision-Making Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11 (February 1985): 14-27; George Rabinowitz and Stuart Elaine Macdonald, "A Directional Theory of Issue Voting," American Political Science Review 83 (March 1989): 93-121.
103. Donald E. Stokes, "Spatial Models of Party Competition," American Political Science Review 57 (June 1963): 368-77; George Rabinowitz, "On the Nature of Political Issues: Insights from a Spatial Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 22 (November 1978): 793-817; James Onken, Reid Hastie, and William Revelle, "Individual Differences in the Use of Simplification Strategies in a Complex Decision-Making Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11 (February 1985): 14-27; George Rabinowitz and Stuart Elaine Macdonald, "A Directional Theory of Issue Voting," American Political Science Review 83 (March 1989): 93-121.
104. Donald E. Stokes, "Spatial Models of Party Competition," American Political Science Review 57 (June 1963): 368-77; George Rabinowitz, "On the Nature of Political Issues: Insights from a Spatial Analysis," American Journal of Political Science 22 (November 1978): 793-817; James Onken, Reid Hastie, and William Revelle, "Individual Differences in the Use of Simplification Strategies in a Complex Decision-Making Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11 (February 1985): 14-27; George Rabinowitz and Stuart Elaine Macdonald, "A Directional Theory of Issue Voting," American Political Science Review 83 (March 1989): 93-121.
105. Two primary types of noncompensatory decision-making strategies have been theorized: conjunctive and lexicographic. In the conjunctive strategy, individuals have certain minimum standards on issues considered important. To remain in consideration, candidates must meet these minimum standards; if they fail to do so, they are eliminated. The decision is based on which candidate remains, or is the best among remaining choices. In the lexicographic strategy, individuals compare candidates on one issue considered most important. The candidate that is closest to the subject's belief on that issue is chosen. If candidates tie, they are compared on the next most-important issue. See Peter Wright and Fredric Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages," Communication Research 2 (July 1975): 246-59.
106. Payne, Bettman, and Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," 93; see also Wright and Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages"; Amos Tversky, Shmuel Sattath, and Paul Slovic, "Contingent Weighting in Judgment and Choice," Psychological Review 95 (July 1988): 371-84.
107. Payne, Bettman, and Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," 93; see also Wright and Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages"; Amos Tversky, Shmuel Sattath, and Paul Slovic, "Contingent Weighting in Judgment and Choice," Psychological Review 95 (July 1988): 371-84.
108. Payne, Bettman, and Johnson, "Behavioral Decision Research," 93; see also Wright and Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages"; Amos Tversky, Shmuel Sattath, and Paul Slovic, "Contingent Weighting in Judgment and Choice," Psychological Review 95 (July 1988): 371-84.
109. Peter Wright, "Consumer Choice Strategies: Simplifying vs. Optimizing," Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 60-66; John W. Payne, "Contingent Decision Behavior," Psychological Bulletin 92 (September 1982): 382-402; Donald MacGregor and Paul Slovic, "Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information," Human-Computer Interaction 2 (1986): 179-200; Sirkka-Liisa Jarvenpaa, "The Effect of Task Demands and Graphical Format on Information Processing Strategies," Management Science 35 (March 1989): 285-303; Eric J. Johnson, Robert J. Meyer, and Sanjoy Ghose, "When Choice Models Fail: Compensatory Representations in Negatively Correlated Environments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 255-70. Notably, affect referral, a decision-making strategy that is neither compensatory nor noncompensatory, has also been theorized. In this strategy, an individual makes a decision based primarily on an affective feeling about the various alternatives or attributes, of which he or she has previous information. For reasons discussed in the method section, the present research did not examine the strategy of affect referral.
110. Peter Wright, "Consumer Choice Strategies: Simplifying vs. Optimizing," Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 60-66; John W. Payne, "Contingent Decision Behavior," Psychological Bulletin 92 (September 1982): 382-402; Donald MacGregor and Paul Slovic, "Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information," Human-Computer Interaction 2 (1986): 179-200; Sirkka-Liisa Jarvenpaa, "The Effect of Task Demands and Graphical Format on Information Processing Strategies," Management Science 35 (March 1989): 285-303; Eric J. Johnson, Robert J. Meyer, and Sanjoy Ghose, "When Choice Models Fail: Compensatory Representations in Negatively Correlated Environments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 255-70. Notably, affect referral, a decision-making strategy that is neither compensatory nor noncompensatory, has also been theorized. In this strategy, an individual makes a decision based primarily on an affective feeling about the various alternatives or attributes, of which he or she has previous information. For reasons discussed in the method section, the present research did not examine the strategy of affect referral.
111. Peter Wright, "Consumer Choice Strategies: Simplifying vs. Optimizing," Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 60-66; John W. Payne, "Contingent Decision Behavior," Psychological Bulletin 92 (September 1982): 382-402; Donald MacGregor and Paul Slovic, "Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information," Human-Computer Interaction 2 (1986): 179-200; Sirkka-Liisa Jarvenpaa, "The Effect of Task Demands and Graphical Format on Information Processing Strategies," Management Science 35 (March 1989): 285-303; Eric J. Johnson, Robert J. Meyer, and Sanjoy Ghose, "When Choice Models Fail: Compensatory Representations in Negatively Correlated Environments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 255-70. Notably, affect referral, a decision-making strategy that is neither compensatory nor noncompensatory, has also been theorized. In this strategy, an individual makes a decision based primarily on an affective feeling about the various alternatives or attributes, of which he or she has previous information. For reasons discussed in the method section, the present research did not examine the strategy of affect referral.
112. Peter Wright, "Consumer Choice Strategies: Simplifying vs. Optimizing," Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 60-66; John W. Payne, "Contingent Decision Behavior," Psychological Bulletin 92 (September 1982): 382-402; Donald MacGregor and Paul Slovic, "Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information," Human-Computer Interaction 2 (1986): 179-200; Sirkka-Liisa Jarvenpaa, "The Effect of Task Demands and Graphical Format on Information Processing Strategies," Management Science 35 (March 1989): 285-303; Eric J. Johnson, Robert J. Meyer, and Sanjoy Ghose, "When Choice Models Fail: Compensatory Representations in Negatively Correlated Environments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 255-70. Notably, affect referral, a decision-making strategy that is neither compensatory nor noncompensatory, has also been theorized. In this strategy, an individual makes a decision based primarily on an affective feeling about the various alternatives or attributes, of which he or she has previous information. For reasons discussed in the method section, the present research did not examine the strategy of affect referral.
113. Peter Wright, "Consumer Choice Strategies: Simplifying vs. Optimizing," Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 60-66; John W. Payne, "Contingent Decision Behavior," Psychological Bulletin 92 (September 1982): 382-402; Donald MacGregor and Paul Slovic, "Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information," Human-Computer Interaction 2 (1986): 179-200; Sirkka-Liisa Jarvenpaa, "The Effect of Task Demands and Graphical Format on Information Processing Strategies," Management Science 35 (March 1989): 285-303; Eric J. Johnson, Robert J. Meyer, and Sanjoy Ghose, "When Choice Models Fail: Compensatory Representations in Negatively Correlated Environments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 255-70. Notably, affect referral, a decision-making strategy that is neither compensatory nor noncompensatory, has also been theorized. In this strategy, an individual makes a decision based primarily on an affective feeling about the various alternatives or attributes, of which he or she has previous information. For reasons discussed in the method section, the present research did not examine the strategy of affect referral.
114. Ball-Rokeach, Power, Guthrie, and Waring, "Value-framing Abortion in the United States"; Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion.
115. Ball-Rokeach, Power, Guthrie, and Waring, "Value-framing Abortion in the United States"; Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion.
116. Ball-Rokeach, Power, Guthrie, and Waring, "Value-framing Abortion in the United States"; Tetlock, "Structure and Function in Political Belief Systems"; Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion.
117. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
118. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
119. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
120. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
121. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
122. See Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Domke and Shah, "Interpretations of Issues and Voter Decision-Making Strategies." Several scholars have similarly distinguished between (a) different conceptions of issues, or (b) different types of values. Most broadly, scholars have grouped together individual concerns about religious morals, personal principles, and basic rights into a broader conception of symbolic or ethical concerns as contrasted against concerns grounded in economics or individual self-interest. While drawing upon this previous work, the distinction between ethical and material interpretations in this research substantially differs from these earlier conceptualizations. Specifically, Sears and Funk distinguish between "self-interest" (material-or economic-oriented) and "symbolic" (value-oriented) interpretations of is-sues, but they offer an affective approach to this distinction and generally do not examine socio-tropic concerns; see David O. Sears and Carolyn L. Funk, "The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, ed. Mark Zanna (NY: Academic Press, 1991), 1-91. Inglehart distinguishes between "materialist" (economic-or fiscal-oriented) and "postmaterialist" (freedom-, quality of life-, and self-expression-oriented) values, but these are conceived as traits tied to individuals or nations rather than contextualized individual interpretations of issues; see Ronald Inglehart, "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review 65 (December 1971): 991-1017; Paul Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Finally, Rokeach distinguishes between "instrumental" (means-oriented) and "terminal" (ends-oriented) values, but ethical and material issue inter-pretations may be grounded in either of these types of values. For example, the instrumental value of courage (standing up for your beliefs) may be the basis for an ethical interpretation, while the instrumental value of capability (competent, effective) may be the basis for a material interpretation; see Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values.
123. Snyder and DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion"; Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory."
124. Snyder and DeBono, "A Functional Approach to Attitudes and Persuasion"; Monroe, "Psychology and Rational Actor Theory."
125. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self"; Tetlock, "A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning."
126. Swann, "Self-Verification: Bringing Social Reality into Harmony with the Self"; Tetlock, "A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning."
127. For an overview of political science research on voting behavior, see Herbert B. Asher, Presidential Elections & American Politics (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1992).
128. See, for example, Tetlock, "A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning."
129. The study was conducted during a two-month span in spring 1993, during the height of debates concerning the status of homosexuals in the armed forces.
130. The combination of three candidates and four issues was chosen to balance concerns about information overload with the ability to distinguish decision-making strategies. More information likely would have led to overload, and fewer candidates or issues would have made it more difficult to differentiate compensatory or noncompensatory strategies. To avoid presenting subjects with too much information, for each issue two of the three candidates held the same position, with each candidate in disagreement once, except on the issues of abortion and gays in the military. On those two issues, there were mild differences between the two candidates in agreement. For abortion, the candidates held the following views: (1) prolife; (2) politically prochoice but personally prolife; (3) prochoice. For gays in the military, the candidates held the following views: (1) antigays in military; (2) moderately in favor of repealing the ban on gays; (3) strongly in favor of repealing the ban.
131. The candidates' positions were composites or variations of actual
132. K. Anders Ericsson and Herbert Simon, Protocol Analysis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984); Zaller and Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response."
133. K. Anders Ericsson and Herbert Simon, Protocol Analysis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984); Zaller and Feldman, "A Simple Theory of the Survey Response."
134. Responses were coded as compensatory if the subject seemed to weigh each relevant issue position without quickly eliminating a candidate due to his stand on an issue deemed salient; in other words, subjects apparently used multiple criteria to evaluate a candidates' overall worth. Subjects were coded as noncompensatory if they eliminated a candidate early in the information processing, after which information regarding that candidate was no longer considered; if there was mention of a minimum standard or litmus test that each candidate must meet to remain in consideration; or if only one issue was clearly predominant in the decision-making process. Implicit to each noncompensatory strategy is the use of an over-riding criterion to eliminate a candidate if he did not satisfy certain standards on which voters will not compromise. Twenty-one subjects across the subpopulations did not answer these qu estions or provided responses that could not be coded. For undergraduate students, two coders agreed on 132 of 151 codable responses as compensatory or noncompensatory, yielding an intercoder reliability coefficient of .87. Using the formula for Scott's pi, which corrects for agreement by chance, intercoder reliability was determined to be 74% greater than by chance. For ROTC members, two coders agreed on 60 of 64 codable responses as compensatory or noncompensatory, yielding an intercoder reliability coefficient of .94, which was 87% greater than by chance. For military personnel, two coders agreed on 157 of 176 codable responses as compensatory or noncompensatory, yielding an intercoder reliability coeffi-cient of .89, which was 77% greater than by chance. The remaining responses in each subpopulation were discussed and then classified. See William A. Scott, "Reliability of Content Analysis: The Case of Nominal Scale Coding," Public Opinion Quarterly 19 (fall 1955): 321-25.
135. See Wright and Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages"; Hogarth, Judgment and Choice.
136. See Wright and Barbour, "The Relevance of Decision Process Models in Structuring Persuasive Messages"; Hogarth, Judgment and Choice.
137. Among undergraduate students, the index had mean inter-item correlations of .285 and a Cronbach's alpha of .78; amongROTC members, the index had mean inter-item correlations of .395 and a Cronbach's alpha of .85; and among military personnel, the index had mean inter-item correlations of .375 and a Cronbach's alpha of .84. When the subpopulations were pooled (to test for the robustness of the hypothesis), the factor analysis accounted for 42.3% of variance in the index, which had mean inter-item correlations of .349 and a Cronbach's alpha of .83.
138. For the correlations between decision-making measures, we report the Kendall's Tau correlation because the open-ended decision-making measures was not a linear variable.
139. The split was made between "5" and "6" in importance for three reasons. First, animportance of "6" is only one scale point removed from "7," the scale point labeled "extremely important"; thus, individuals reporting an issue as a "6" or "7" probably considered the issue as at least fairly important. Second, so as to maintain consistency across issues, only one cut point was used, and the split between "5" and "6" closely approximated the mean importance score of each issue more consistently than other possible splits. Third, the cut point between "5" and "6" yielded a fairly normal distribution of the new variable, number of issues considered important, for subjects in both political environments.
140. Twenty-five subjects did not answer these questions or failed to provide enough information to reliably code. For undergraduate students, two coders agreed on 125 of 146 codable responses as having a material interpretation or ethical interpretation, producing an intercoder reliability coefficient of .86, which was 70% greater than by chance. For ROTC members, two coders agreed on 59 of 64 codable responses as having a material interpretation or ethical interpretation, yielding an intercoder reliability coefficient of .92, which was 80% greater than by chance. For military personnel, two coders agreed on 161 of 177 codable responses as having a material interpretation or ethical interpretation, yielding an intercoder reliability coefficient of .91, which was 81% greater than by chance. The remaining responses in each subpopulation were discussed and then classified.
141. See, for example, Lau, Smith, and Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion"; Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Neuman, Just, and Crigler, News and the Construction of Political Meaning; Graber, Processing the News.
142. See, for example, Lau, Smith, and Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion"; Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Neuman, Just, and Crigler, News and the Construction of Political Meaning; Graber, Processing the News.
143. See, for example, Lau, Smith, and Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion"; Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Neuman, Just, and Crigler, News and the Construction of Political Meaning; Graber, Processing the News.
144. See, for example, Lau, Smith, and Fiske, "Political Beliefs, Policy Interpretations, and Political Persuasion"; Shah, Domke, and Wackman, "Values, Framing, and Voter Decision-Making Strategies"; Neuman, Just, and Crigler, News and the Construction of Political Meaning; Graber, Processing the News.
145. The public affairs media use index had a Cronbach's alpha of .70 among military personnel, .74 among ROTC members, and .56 among undergraduate students.
146. The analytical approach used in this research is necessary to get "within the cognitive system of the individual" (Lavine, Sullivan, Borgida, and Thomsen, "The Relationship of National and Personal Issue Salience to Attitude Accessibility on Foreign and Domestic Policy Issues," 298).
147. Although one of the measures of the dependent variable, the open-ended decision-making strategy measure, was dichotomous, linear regressions were run in order to allow comparison of (1) the beta weights -particularly their direction - for each independent variable, and (2) the amount of variance explained by each block across the two dependent measures. When using the open-ended measure as the dependent variable, logistical regressions were also run to compare the results, and there were no distinguishable differences between the linear and logistical regressions. For abortion, the final block of issue interpretation (Wald = 26.5, p<.001) correctly predicted an additional 6.9% of responses after the first three blocks were entered, totalling 82.1% correctly predicted. For gays in the military, the final block of issue interpretation (Wald = 9.4, p<.01) correctly predicted an additional 2.9% of responses after the first three blocks were entered, totalling 79.6% correctly predicted. For both regressions, issue interpretation was the greatest single predictor in the final equations.
148. Harris Poll conducted 5-10 June 1992 with a national sample of 1,255 adults (data from the Roper Center, University of Connecticut).
149. Time/CNN Poll conducted 9 April 1992 with a national sample of 1,250 adults (data from the Roper Center, University of Connecticut).
150. U.S. News and World Report Poll conducted 29-31 August 1993 with a national sample of 1,000 registered voters (data from the Roper Center, University of Connecticut).
151. NBC News/Wall Street Journal Poll conducted 20-21 October 1992 with a national sample of 1,008 registered voters (data from the Roper Center, University of Connecticut).