Molecular Biology of Glycinergic Neurotransmission

Molecular Neurobiology

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 117-142

  Zafra, Francisco ^a   Aragón, Carmen ^a   Giménez, Cecilio ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

Author keywords

Brainstem; Glycine metabolism; Glycine receptors; Glycine transporters; Myoclonus; NMDA receptor; Spinal cord

Indexed keywords

AMINO ACID TRANSPORTER; CARRIER PROTEIN; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR; GLYCINE; GLYCINE RECEPTOR; GLYCINE TRANSPORTER; SLC6A5 PROTEIN, HUMAN; SLC6A9 PROTEIN, HUMAN;

ANIMAL; CHEMISTRY; HUMAN; MAMMAL; NERVE CELL; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

AMINO ACID TRANSPORT SYSTEMS, NEUTRAL; ANIMALS; CARRIER PROTEINS; GLYCINE; GLYCINE PLASMA MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS; HUMANS; MAMMALS; NEURONS; RECEPTORS, GLUTAMATE; RECEPTORS, GLYCINE; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

EID: 0031155670     PISSN: 08937648     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF02740653     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. 2+-independent release of neurotransmitters. J. Neurochem. 58, 395-405.
2. Adams R. H., Sato K., Shimada S., Tohyama M., Püschel A. W., and Betz, H. (1995) Gene structure and glial expression of the glycine transporter GLYT1 in embryonic and adult rodents. J. Neurosci. 15, 2524-2532.
3. Alexander F. W., Sandmeier E., Mehta P. K., and Christen P. (1994) Evolutionary relationships among pyridoxal-5′-phosphate-dependent enzymes. Eur. J. Biochem. 219, 953-960.
4. Alfonso A., Grundahl K., Duerr J. S., Han H. P., and Rand J. B. (1993) The Caenorhabditis elegans Unc-17 gene - a putative vesicular acetylcholine transporter. Science 261, 617-619.
5. Amara S. G. and Kuhar M. J. (1993) Neurotransmitter transporters: recent progress. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 73-93.
6. Aoki E., Semba R., Keino H., Kato K., and Kashiwamata S. (1988) Glycine-like immunoreactivity in the rat auditory pathway. Brain Res. 442, 63-71.
7. Aprison M. H. and Daly E. C. (1978) Biochemical aspect of transmission at inhibitory synapses; the role of glycine. Adv. Neurochem. 3, 203-295.
8. Aragón C., Agulló L., and Giménez C. (1988) Depolarization-induced release of glycine and β-alanine from plasma membrane vesicles derived from rat brain synaptosomes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 941, 209-216.
9. Aragón C., Giménez C., and Mayor F. (1987) Stoichiometry of sodium- and chloride-coupled glycine transport in synaptic plasma membrane vesicles derived from rat brain. FEBS Lett. 212, 87-90.
10. Araki T., Yamano M., Murakami T., Wanaka A., Betz H., and Tohyama M. (1988) Localization of glycine receptor in the rat central nervous system: an immunocytochemical analysis using monoclonal antibody. Neuroscience 25, 613-624.
11. 2+ from brain tissue during activity. Nature 308, 734-736.
12. Attwell D., Barbour B., and Szatkowski M. (1993) Nonvesicular release of neurotransmitter. Neuron 11, 401-407.
13. Ayoub G. S. and Lam D. M. (1984) The release of γ-aminobutyric acid from horizontal cells of the goldfish (Carassius auratus) retina. J. Physiol. 355, 191-214.
14. Becker C. M., Hermans-Borgmeyer I., Schmitt B., and Betz H. (1988) The glycine receptor deficiency of mutant mouse spastic: evidence for normal glycine receptor structure and localization. J. Neurosci. 6, 1358-1364.
15. Betz H. (1990) Homology and analogy in transmembrane channel design: Lessons from synaptic membrane proteins. Biochemistry 29, 3591-3599.
16. Betz H., Kuhse J., Fischer M., Schmieden V., Laube B., Kuryatov A., Langosch D., Meyer G., Bormann J., Rundström N., Matzenbach B., Kirsch J., and Ramming M (1994) Structure, diversity and synaptic localization of inhibitory glycine receptors. J. Physiol. (Paris) 88, 243-248.
17. Biscoe T. J. and Duchen M. R. (1986) Synaptic physiology of spinal motoneurones of normal and spastic mice: an in vitro study. J. Physiol. 379, 275-292.
18. 2+. Mol. Pharmacol. 46, 1156-1159.
19. Bormann J., Runström N., Betz, H., and Langosch D. (1993) Residues within transmembrane M2 determine chloride conductance of glycine receptor homo- and hetero-oligomers. EMBO J. 12, 3729-3737.
20. Borowsky B., Mezey E., and Hoffman B. J. (1993) Two glycine transporters variants with distinct localization in the CNS and peripheral tissues are encoded by a common gene. Neuron 10, 851-863.
21. Buckwalter M. S., Cook S. A., Davidsson M. T., White W. F., and Camper S. A. (1994) A frame-shift mutation in the mouse alpha 1 glycine receptor gene (Glra1) results in progressive neurological symptoms and juvenile death. Hum. Mol. Genet. 3, 2025-2030.
22. Budai D., Wilcox G. L., and Larson A. A. (1992) Enhancement of NMDA-evoked neuronal activity by glycine in the rat spinal cord in vivo. Neurosci. Lett. 135, 265-268.
23. Burger P. M., Hell J., Mehl E., Krasl C., Lottspeich F., and Jahn R. (1991) GABA and glycine in synaptic vesicles: storage and transport characteristics. Neuron 7, 287-293.
24. Campistron G., Buijs R. M., and Geffard M. (1986) Glycine neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Antibody production and immunocytochemical localization. Brain Res. 376, 400-405.
25. Casado M., Zafra F., Aragón C., and Giménez C. (1991). Activation of the high-affinity uptake of glutamate by phorbol esters in primary glial cell cultures. J. Neurochem. 57, 1185-1190.
26. Casado M., Bendahan A., Zafra F., Danbolt N. C., Aragón C., Giménez C., and Kanner B. I. (1993) Phosphorylation and modulation of brain glutamate transporters by protein kinase C. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 27,313-27,317.
27. Christensen H., Fyske E. M., and Fonnum F. (1990) Uptake of glycine into synaptic vesicles from rat spinal cord. J. Neurochem. 54, 1142-1147.
28. Clark J. A. and Amara S. G. (1993) Amino acid neurotransmitter transporters: structure, function and molecular diversity. BioEssays 15, 323-332.
29. Curtis D. R., Hösli L., and Johnston G. A. R. (1968) A pharmacological study of the depression of spinal neurons by glycine and related amino acids. Exp. Brain Res. 6, 1-18.
30. D'Angelo E., Rossi P., and Gartwaite J. (1990) Dual-component NMDA currents at a single central synapse. Nature 346, 467-470.
31. Davanger S., Ottersen O. P., and Storm-Mathisen J. (1991) Glutamate, GABA, and glycine in the human retina: an immunocytochemical investigation. J. Comp. Neurol. 311, 483-494.
32. Devillers-Thiéry A., Galzi J. L., Eiselé J. L. Bertrand S., Bertrand D., and Changeux J. P. (1993) Functional architecture of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: a prototype of ligand-gated ion channels. J. Membrane Biol. 136, 97-112.
33. During M. J., Ryder K. M., and Spencer D. D. (1995) Hippocampal GABA transporter fuction in temporal-lobe epilepsy. Nature 376, 174-177.
34. Edwards, R. H. (1993) Neural degeneration and the transport of neurotransmitters. Ann. Neurol. 34, 638-645.
35. Erickson J. D., Eiden L., and Hoffman B. (1992) Expression cloning of a reserpine-sensitive vesicular monoamine transporter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10,993-10,997
36. Erickson J. D., Varoqui H., Schafer M. K. H., Modi W., Diebler M. F., Weihe E., Rand J., Eiden L., Bonner T. I., and Usdin T. B. (1994) Functional identification of a vesicular acetylcholine transporter and its expression from a "cholinergic" gene locus. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 21,929-21,932.
37. 3H]Glycine uptake in rat hippocampus: kinetic analysis and autoradiographic localization. Brain Res. 572, 154-163.
38. Floeter M. K. and Hallet M. (1993) Glycine receptors: a startling connection. Nature Genet. 5, 319-320.
39. Gallo V., Patrizio M., and Levi G. (1991) GABA release triggered by the activation of neuron-like non-NMDA receptors in cultured type 2 astrocytes is carrier-mediated. Glia 4, 245-255.
40. Garrow T. A., Brenner A. A., Whitehead V. M. Chen X.-N., Duncan R. G., Korenberg J. R., and Shane B. (1993) Cloning of human cDNAs encoding mitochondrial and cytosolic serine hydroxymethyl-transferases and chromosomal localization. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 11,910-11,916.
41. Gasic G. P. and Hollmann M. (1992) Molecular neurobiology of glutamate receptors. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 54, 507-536.
42. Gomeza J., Casado M., Giménez C., and Aragón C. (1991). Inhibition of high-affinity γ-aminobutyric acid uptake in primary astrocyte cultures by phorbol esters and phospholipase C. Biochem. J. 275, 435-439.
43. Gomeza J., Zafra F., Olivares L., Giménez C., and Aragón C. (1995) Regulation by phorbol esters of the glycine transporter (GLYT1) in glioblastoma cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1233, 41-46.
44. Graham D., Pfeiffer P., and Betz H. (1983) Photoaffinity-labeling of the glycine receptor of rat spinal cord. Eur. J. Biochem. 131, 519-525.
45. Grenningloh G., Schmieden V., Schofield P. R., Seeburg P. H., Siddique T., Mohandas T. K., Becker C. M. and Betz, H. (1990a) Alpha subunit variants of the human glycine receptor: primary structures, functional expression and chromosomal localization of the corresponding gene. EMBO J. 9, 771-776.
46. Grenningloh G., Pribilla I., Prior P., Multhaup G., Beyreuther K., Taleb O., and Betz H. (1990b) Cloning and expression of the 58 Kd β subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor. Neuron 4, 963-970.
47. Grenningloh G., Rienitz A., Schmitt B., Methfessel C., Zensen M., Beyreuther K., Gundelfinger E. D., and Betz, H. (1987) The strychnine-binding subunit of the glycine receptor shows homology with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Nature 328, 215-220.
48. Grimwood S., Le Bourdellès B., and Withing P. J. (1995) Human homomeric NMDAR1 receptors transiently expressed in mammalian cells form a high affinity glycine antagonist binding site. J. Neurochem. 64, 525-530.
49. Grünert U. and Wässle H. (1993) Immunocytochemical localization of glycine receptors in the mammalian retina. J. Comp. Neurol. 335, 523-537.
50. 2+ in trigeminal neurons. J. Neurosci. 14, 4561-4570.
51. Guastella J., Nelson N., Nelson, H., Czyzyk L., Keynan S., Miedel M. C., Davidson N., Lester H. A., and Kanner B. I. (1990) Cloning and expression of a rat brain GABA transporter. Science 249, 1303-1306.
52. Guastella J., Brecha N., Weigmann C., Lester H. A., and Davidson N. (1992) Cloning, expression, and localization of a rat brain high-affinity glycine transporter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 7189-7193.
53. Hall Z. W. (1992) Recognition domains in assembly of oligomeric membrane proteins. Trends Cell Biol. 2, 66-68.
54. Hamill O. P., Bormann J., and Sackmann B. (1983) Activation of multiple conductance state chloride channels in spinal neurons by glycine and GABA. Nature 305, 805-808.
55. Hartenstein B., Schenkel J., Kuhse J., Besenbeck B., Kling C., Becker C. M., Betz H., and Weiher H. (1996) Low level expression of glycine receptor β subunit transgene is sufficient for phenotype correction in spastic mice. EMBO J. 15, 1275-1282.
56. Hayasaka K., Tada K., Kikuchi G., Winter S., and Nyhan W. L. (1983) Nonketotic hyperglycinemia: two patients with primary defects of P-protein and T-protein, respectively, in the glycine cleavage system Pediatr. Res. 17, 967-970.
57. Hell J. W., Maycox P. R., and Jahn R. (1990) Energy dependence and functional reconstitution of the gamma-aminobutyric acid carrier from synaptic vesicles. J. Biol. Chem. 265, 2111-2117.
58. Hiraga K. and Kikuchi G. (1980) The mitochondrial glycine cleavage system. Functional association of glycine decarboxylase and aminomethyl carrier protein. J. Biol. Chem. 255, 11,671-11,676.
59. Hirai H., Kirsch J., Laube B., Betz H., and Kuhse J. (1996) The glycine binding site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit NR1: identification of novel determinants of co-agonist potentiation in the extracellular M3-M4 loop region. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 6031-6036.
60. Hoch W., Betz H., and Becker C. M. (1989) Primary cultures of mouse spinal cord express the neonatal form of the inhibitory glycine receptor. Neuron 3, 339-348.
61. Hollmann M., Boulter J., Maron C., Beasley L., Sullivan J., Pecht G., and Heinemann S. (1993) Zinc potentiates agonist-induced currents at certain splice variants of the NMDA receptor. Neuron 10, 943-954.
62. Huganir R. L. and Greengard P. (1990) Regulation of neurotransmitter receptor desensitization by protein phosphorylation. Neuron 5, 555-567.
63. Johnson J. W. and Ascher P. (1987) Glycine potentiates the NMDA response in cultured mouse brain neurons. Nature 325, 529-531.
64. Johnston G. A. R. and Iversen, L. L. (1971) Glycine uptake in rat central nervous system slices and homogenates: evidence for different uptake systems in spinal cord and cerebral cortex. J. Neurochem. 18, 1951-1961.
65. Jursky F. and Nelson N. (1995) Localization of glycine transporter (GLYT2) reveals correlation with the distribution of glycine receptor. J. Neurochem. 64, 1026-1033.
66. Kanai Y., Smith P., and Hediger M. A. (1994) A new family of neurotransmitter transporters: the high-affinity glutamate transporters. FASEB J. 8, 1450-1459.
67. Kemp J. A. and Leeson P. D. (1993) The glycine site of the NMDA receptor-five years on. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 14, 20-25.
68. Kim K. M., Kingsmore S. F., Han H., Yang-Feng T. L., Godinot N., Seldin M. F., Caron M. G., and Giros B. (1994) Cloning of the human glycine transporter type 1 : molecular and pharmacological characterization of novel isoform variants and chromosomal localization of the gene in the human and mouse genomes. Mol. Pharmacol. 45, 608-617.
69. Kingsmore S. F., Giros, B., Suh D., Bieniarz M., Caron M. G., and Seldin M. F. (1994) Glycine receptor β-subunit gene mutation in spastic mouse associated with LINE-1 element insertion. Nature Genet. 7, 136-141.
70. Kirsch J. and Betz H. (1995) The postsynaptic localization of the glycine receptor-associated protein gephyrin is regulated by the cytoskeleton. J. Neurosci. 15, 4148-4156.
71. Kirsch J., Langosch D., Prior P., Littauer U. Z. Schmitt B., and Betz H. (1991) The 93 kDa glycine receptor-associated protein binds to tubulin. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 22,242-22,245.
72. Kirsch J., Wolters I., Triller A., and Betz H. (1993) Gephyrin antisense oligonucleotides prevent glycine receptor clustering in spinal neurons. Nature 366, 745-748.
73. Kish P. E., Fischer-Bovenkerk C., and Ueda T. (1989) Active transport of gamma-aminobutyric acid and glycine into synaptic vesicles. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 3877-3881.
74. Kleckner N. W. and Dingledine R. (1988) Requirement for glycine in activation of NMDA-receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Science 241, 835-837.
75. Kuhar M. J. and Zarbin M. A. (1978) Synaptosomal transport: a chloride dependence for choline, GABA, glycine and several other compounds. J. Neurochem. 31, 251-256.
76. Kuhse J., Laube B., Magalei D., and Betz H. (1993) Assembly of the inhibitory glycine receptor: identification of amino acid sequence motifs governing subunit stoichiometry. Neuron 11, 1049-1056.
77. Kuhse J., Schmieden V., and Betz H. (1990a) Identification and functional expression of a novel ligand binding subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor J. Biol. Chem. 265, 22,317-22,320.
78. Kuhse J., Schmieden V., and Betz H. (1990b) A single amino acid exchange alters the pharmacology of neonatal rat glycine receptor subunit. Neuron 5, 867-873.
79. Kuhse J., Kuryatov A., Maulet Y., Malosio M. L., Schmieden V., and Betz H. (1991) Alternative splicing generates two isoforms of the α2 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor. FEBS. Lett. 283, 73-77.
80. Kume A., Koyata H., Sakakibara T., Ishiguro Y., Kure S., and Hiraga K. (1991) The glycine cleavage system. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 3323-3329.
81. Kuryatov A., Laube B., Betz H., and Kuhse J. (1994) Mutational analysis of the glycine-binding site of the NMDA receptor: structural similarity with bacterial amino-acid binding proteins. Neuron 12, 1291-1300.
82. Langosch D., Thomas L., and Betz H. (1988) Conserved quaternary structure of ligand-gated ion channels: the postsynaptic glycine receptor is a pentamer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 7394-7398.
83. Langosch D., Laube B., Rundström N., Schmieden V., Bormann J., and Betz H. (1994) Decreased agonist affinity and chloride conductance of mutant glycine receptors associated with human hereditary hyperekplexia. EMBO J. 13, 4223-4228.
84. Laube B., Kuryatov A., Kuhse J., and Betz H. (1993) Glycine-glutamate interactions at the NMDA receptor: role of cysteine residues. FEBS Lett. 335, 331-334.
85. Laube B., Kuhse J., Rundström N., Kirsch J., Schmieden V., and Betz H. (1995) Modulation of the inhibitory glycine receptor by zinc ions. J. Physiol. 483, 613-619.
86. Leeson P. D. and Iversen L. L. (1994) The glycine site on the NMDA receptor: structure-activity relationships and therapeutic potential J. Med. Chem. 37, 4053-4067.
87. Liu Q.-R., López-Corcuera B., Mandiyan S., Nelson H., and Nelson N. (1993a) Cloning and expression of a spinal cord- and brain-specific glycine transporter with novel structure features. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 22,802-22,808.
88. Liu Q.-R., Mandiyan S., López-Corcuera B., Nelson H., and Nelson N. (1993b) A rat brain cDNA encoding a neurotransmitter transporter with an unusual structure. FEBS Lett. 315, 114-118.
89. + toxicity encodes a vesicular amine transporter. Cell 70, 539-551.
90. Logan W. J. and Snyder S. H. (1972) High affinity uptake systems for glycine, glutamic and aspartic acids in synaptosomes of rat central nervous tissues. Brain. Res. 42, 413-131.
91. López-Corcuera B., Vázquez J., and Aragón C. (1991) Purification of the sodium- and chloride-coupled glycine transporter from central nervous system. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 24,809-24,814.
92. López-Corcuera B., Alcántara R., Vázquez J., and Aragón C. (1993) Hydrodynamic properties and immunological identification of the sodium- and chloride-coupled glycine transporter. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 2239-2243.
93. Luque J. M., Nelson N., and Richards J. G. (1995) Cellular expression of glycine transporter messenger RNA exclusively in rat hindbrain and spinal cord. Neuroscience 64, 525-535.
94. Lynch J. W., Rajendra S., Barry P. H., and Schofield P. R. (1994) Mutations affecting the glycine receptor agonist transduction mechanism convert the competitive antagonist, picrotoxin, into an allosteric potentiator. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 13, 799-13,806.
95. Mabjeesh N. J. and Kanner B. I. (1992) Neither amino nor carboxyl termini are required for function of the sodium- and chloride-coupled γ-aminobutyric acid transporter from rat brain. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 2563-2568.
96. Malosio M. L., Grenningloh G., Kuhse J., Schmieden V., Schmitt B., Prior P., and Betz H. (1991a) Alternatives splicing generates two variants of the α1 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 2048-2053.
97. Malosio M. L., Marqueze-Pouey B., Kuhse J., and Betz H. (1991b) Widespread expression of glycine receptor subunit mRNAs in the adult and developing rat brain. EMBO J. 10, 2401-2409.
98. Matzenbach B., Maulet Y., Sefton L., Courtier B., Avner P., Guénet J. L., and Betz H. (1994) Structural analysis of mouse glycine receptor α subunit genes. Identification and chromosomal localization of a novel variant, α4. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 2607-2612.
99. Maycox P. R., Hell J. W., and Jahn R. (1990) Amino acid neurotransmission: spotlight on synaptic vesicles. Trends Neurosci. 13, 83-87.
100. Mayor F. Jr., Marvizón J. G., Aragón C., Giménez C., and Valdivieso F. (1981) Glycine transport into plasma-membrane vesicles derived from rat brain synaptosomes. Biochem. J. 198, 535-541.
101. Meyer G., Kirsch J., Betz H., and Langosch D. (1995) Identification of a gephyrin binding motif on the glycine receptor β subunit. Neuron 15, 563-572.
102. Monyer H., Sprengel R., Schoepfer R., Herb A., Higuchi M., Lomeli H., Burnashev N., Sakmann B., and Seeburg P. H. (1992) Heteromeric NMDA receptors: molecular and functional distinction of subtypes. Science 256, 1217-1221.
103. Moriyoshi K., Masu M., Ishii T., Shigemoto R., Mizuno N., and Nakanishi S. (1991) Molecular cloning and characterization of the rat NMDA receptor. Nature 354, 31-37.
104. Mulder A. H. and Snyder S. H. (1974) Potassium-induced release of amino acids from cerebral cortex and spinal cord slices of the rat. Brain Res. 76, 297-308.
105. Mülhardt C., Fischer M., Gass P., Simon-Chazottes D., Guénet J. L., Kuhse J., Betz H., and Becker C. M. (1994) The spastic mouse: aberrant splicing of glycine receptor β subunit mRNA caused by intronic insertion of L1 element. Neuron 13, 1003-1015.
106. Naas E., Zilles K., Gnahn H., Betz H., Becker C. M., and Schröder H. (1991) Glycine receptor immunoreactivity in rat and human cerebral cortex. Brain Res. 561, 139-146.
107. Nakanishi S. (1992) Molecular diversity of glutamate receptors and implications for brain function. Science 258, 597-603.
108. 14C)glycine by spinal cord. Nature 222, 679-680.
109. Nelson N. (1993) Presynaptic events in neurotransmission J. Physiol. 87, 171-178.
110. Núñez E. and Aragón C. (1994) Structural analysis and functional role of the carbohydrate component of glycine transporter. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 16,920-16,924.
111. Okamura-Ikeda K., Fujiwara K., and Motokawa Y. (1992) Molecular cloning of a cDNA encoding chicken T-protein of the glycine cleavage system and expression of a functional protein in Escherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 18,284-18,290.
112. Olivares L., Aragón C., Giménez C., and Zafra F. (1994) Carboxyl terminus of the glycine transporter GLYT1 is necessary for correct processing of the protein. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 28, 400-28,404.
113. Olivares L., Aragón C., Giménez C., and Zafra F. (1995) The role of N-glycosylation in the targeting and activity of the GLYT1 glycine transporter. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 9437-9442.
114. Olivares L., Aragón C., Giménez C., and Zafra F. (1997) Analysis of the transmembrane topology of the glycine transporter GLYT1. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 1211-1217.
115. Ottersen O. P. and Storm Mathisen J. (1987) Distribution of inhibitory amino acid neurons in the cerebellum with some observations in the spinal cord: an immunocytochemical study with antisera against fixed GABA, glycine, taurine, and β-Alanine. J. Mind Behav. 8, 503-518.
116. 3H]GABA uptake. Exp. Brain Res. 66, 211-221.
117. Ottersen O. P., Storm-Mathisen J., and Somogyi P. (1988) Co-localization of glycine-like and GABA-like immunoreactivities in Golgi terminals in the rat cerebellum: A postembedding light and electron microscopic study. Brain Res. 45, 342-353.
118. Ottersen O. P., Storm-Mathisen J., and Laake J. H. (1990) Cellular and subcellular localization of glycine studied by quantitative electron microscopic immunocytochemistry, in Glycine Neurotransmission (Ottersen O. P. and Storm-Mathisen J., eds.), John Wiley, Chichester. pp. 303-328.
119. Otulakowski G. and Robinson B. H. (1987) Isolation and sequence determination of cDNA clones for porcine and human lipoamide dehydrogenase. Homology to other disulfide oxidoreductases. J. Biol. Chem. 262, 17,313-17,318.
120. Pacholczyk T., Blakely R. D., and Amara S. (1991) Expression cloning of a cocaine and antidepressant-sensitive human noradrenaline transporter. Nature 350, 350-354.
121. Pfeiffer F., Graham D., and Betz H. (1982) Purification by affinity chromatography of glycine receptor of rat spinal cord. J. Biol. Chem. 257, 9389-9393.
122. Pin J. P. and Bockaert J. (1989) Two distinct mechanisms, differentially affected by excitatory amino acids, trigger GABA release from mouse striatal neurons in primary culture. J. Neurosci. 9, 648-656.
123. Pourcho R. G. and Goebel D. J. (1985) Immunocytochemical demonstration of glycine in the retina. Brain Res. 348, 339-342.
124. Pourcho R. G. and Goebel D. J. (1990). Autoradiographic and immunocytochemical studies of glycine containing neurons in the retina, in Glycine Neurotransmission (Ottersen O. P. and Storm-Mathisen J., eds.), John Wiley, Chichester. pp. 355-389.
125. Pribilla I., Takagi T., Langosch D., Bormann J., and Betz H. (1992) The atypical M2 segment of the β subunit confers picrotoxinin resistance to inhibitory glycine receptor channels. EMBO J. 11, 4305-4311.
126. Priestley T. and Kemp, J. A. (1993) Agonist response kinetics of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in neurons cultured from rat cerebral cortex and cerebellum-evidence for receptor heterogeneity. Mol. Pharmacol. 42, 1252-1257.
127. Rajendra S., Lynch J. W., Pierce K. D., French C. R., Barry P. H., and Schofield P. R. (1994) Startle disease mutation reduce the agonist sensitivity of the human inhibitory glycine receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 29, 18,739-18,742.
128. Rajendra S., Lynch J. W., Pierce K. D., French C. R., Barry P. H., and Schofield P. R. (1995a) Mutations of an arginine residue in the human glycine receptor transform β-alanine and taurine from agonists into competitive antagonists. Neuron 14, 169-175.
129. Rajendra S., Vandenberg R. J., Pierce K. D., Cunningham A. M., French C. W., Barry P. H., and Schofield P. R. (1995b) The unique extracellular disulfide loop of the glycine receptor is a principal ligand binding element. EMBO J. 14, 2987-2998.
130. Rao T. S., Cler J. A., Emmett M. R., Mick S. J., Iyengar S., and Wood P. L. (1990) Glycine, glycinamide and D-serine act as positive modulator of signal transduction at the N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in vivo: differential effects on mouse cerebellar cyclic guanosine monophosphate levels. Neuropharmacology 29, 1075-1080.
131. Raymond L. A., Blackstone C. D., and Huganir R. L (1993) Phosphorilation of amino acid neurotransmitter receptors in synaptic plasticity. Trends Neurosci. 16, 147-153.
132. Rees M. I., Andrew M., Jawad S., and Owen M. J. (1994) Evidence for recessive as well as dominant forms of startle disease (hyperekplexia) caused by mutations in the alpha 1 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor. Hum. Mol. Genet. 3, 2175-2179.
133. Roghani A., Feldman J., Kohan S. A., Shirzadi A., Gundersen C. B., Brecha N., and Edwards R. H. (1994) Molecular cloning of a putative vesicular transporter for acetylcholine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 10,620-10,624.
134. Ruiz-Gómez A., Morato E., Garcia-Calvo M., Valdivieso F., and Mayor F. Jr. (1990) Localization of the strychnine binding site on de 48-kilodalton subunit of the glycine receptor. Biochemistry 29, 7033-7039.
135. Ruiz-Gómez A., Vaello M. L., Valdivieso F., and Mayor F. Jr. (1991) Phosphorylation of the 48 kDa subunit of the glycine receptor by protein kinase C. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 559-566.
136. Rundström N., Schmieden V., Betz H., Bormann J., and Langosch D. (1994) Cyanotriphenylborate: subtype-specific blocker of glycine receptor chloride channels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 8950-8954.
137. Ryan S. G., Buckwalter, M. S. Lynch J. W. Handford C. A., Segura L., Shiang R., Wasmuth J. J., Camper S. A. Schofield P., and O'Connell P. (1994) A missense mutation in the gene encoding the α1 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor in the spasmodic mouse. Nature Genet. 7, 131-135.
138. Salt T. E. (1989) Modulation of NMDA receptor-mediated responses by glycine and D-serine in the rat thalamus in vivo. Brain Res. 481, 403-406.
139. Sato K., Yoshida S., Fujiwara K., Tada K., and Tohyama M. (1991a) Glycine cleavage system in astrocytes. Brain Res. 567, 64-70.
140. Sato K., Zhang J. H., Saika T., Sato M., Tada K., and Tohyama M. (1991b) Localization of glycine receptor α1 subunit mRNA-containing neurons in the rat brain: an analysis using in situ hybridization histochemistry. Neuroscience 43, 381-395.
141. Saul B., Schmieden V., Kling C., Mülhardt C., Gass P., Kuhse J., and Becker C. M. (1994) Point mutation of glycine receptor al subunit in the spasmodic mouse affects agonist responses FEBS Lett. 350, 71-76.
142. Schmieden V., Grennigloh G., Schofield P. R., and Betz, H. (1989) Functional expression in Xenopus oocytes of the strychnine binding 48 kDa subunit of glycine receptor. EMBO J. 8, 695-700.
143. Schmieden V., Kuhse J., and Betz H. (1992) Agonist pharmacology of neonatal and adult glycine receptor a subunits: identification of amino acid residues involved in taurine activation. EMBO J. 11, 2025-2032.
144. Schmitt B., Knaos P., Becker C. M., and Betz H. (1987) The Mr 93.000 polypeptide of the postsynaptic glycine receptor complex is a peripheral membrane protein. Biochemistry 26, 805-811.
145. Schónrock B. and Bormann J. (1995) Modulation of hippocampal glycine receptor channels by protein kinase C. NeuroReport 6, 301-304.
146. Schwarz E. A. (1982) Calcium-independent release of GABA from isolated cells of the toad retina. J. Physiol. 323, 211-228.
147. Schwarz E. A. (1987) Depolarization without calcium can release γ-aminobutyric acid from a retinal neuron. Science 238, 350-355.
148. Shiang R., Ryan S. G., Zhu Y-Z., Hahn A. F., O'Connell P., and Wasmuth J. J. (1993) Mutations in the α1 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor cause the dominant neurologic disorder hyperekplexia. Nature Genet. 5, 351-357.
149. Shupliakov O., Ornung G., Brodin L., Ulfhake B., Ottersen O. P., Storm-Mathisen J., and Cullheim S. (1993) Immunocytochemical localization of amino acid neurotransmitter candidates in the ventral horn of the cat spinal cord: a light microscopic study. Exp. Brain Res. 96, 404-418.
150. Singh L., Oles R. J., and Tricklebank M. D. (1990) Modulation of seizure susceptibility in the mouse by strychnine-insensitive glycine recognition site of the NMDA receptor/ion channel complex. Br. J. Pharmacol. 99, 285-288.
151. Smart T. G. (1992) A novel modulatory binding site for zinc on the GABAA receptor complex in cultured rat neurones. J. Physiol. 447, 587-625.
152. Smith K. E., Borden L. A., Harting P. R., Branchek T., and Weinshank R. L. (1992) Cloning and expression of a glycine transporter reveal colocalization with NMDA receptors. Neuron 8, 927-935.
153. Song Y. and Huang L. Y. M. (1990) Modulation of glycine receptor chloride channels by cAMP-dependent protein kinase is spinal trigeminal neurons. Nature 348, 242-245.
154. Spike R. C., Watt C., Zafra F., and Todd A. J. (1996) An ultrastructural study of the glycine transporter GLYT2 and its association with glycine in the superficial laminae of the rat spinal dorsal horn. Neuroscience, 77, 543-551.
155. Szatkowski M. and Attwell D. (1994) Triggering and execution of neuronal death in brain ischaemia: two phases of glutamate release by different mechanisms. Trends Neurosci. 17, 359-365.
156. Szatkowski M., Barbour B., and Attwell D. (1990) Non vesicular release of glutamate from glial cells by reversed electrogenic glutamate uptake. Nature 348, 443-146.
157. Takahashi T., Momiyama A., Hirai K., Hishinuma B., and Akagi H. (1992) Functional correlation of fetal and adult forms of glycine receptors with developmental changes in inhibitory synaptic receptor channels. Neuron 9, 1155-1161.
158. Thiels E., Weisz D. J., and Berger T. W. (1992) In vivo modulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent long-term potentiation by the glycine modulatory site. Neuroscience 46, 501-509.
159. Todd A. and Sullivan, A. C. (1990) Light microscope study of coexistence of GABA-like and glycine-like immunoreactivities in the spinal cord of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 296, 496-505.
160. Todd A. J., Watt C., Spike R. C., and Sieghart W. (1996) Colocalization of GABA, glycine, and their receptors at synapses in the rat spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 16, 974-982.
161. Triller A., Cluzeaud F., Pfeiffer F., Betz H., and Korn H. (1985) Distribution of glycine receptors at central synapses: an inmunoelectron microscopy study. J. Cell Biol. 101, 683-688.
162. Uchiyama M., Hirai K., Hishinuma F., and Akagi H. (1994) Down-regulation of glycine receptor channels by protein kinase C in Xenopus oocytes injected with synthetic RNA. Mol. Brain Res. 24, 295-300.
163. Uhl G. R. and Hartig P. R. (1992) Transporter explosion: update on uptake. Trends Pharm. Sci. 13, 421-425.
164. Uhl G. R., Kitayama S., Gregor P., Nanthakumar E., Persico A., and Shimana S. (1992) Neurotransmitter transporter family cDNAs in a rat midbrain library: "orphan transporters" suggest sizable structural variations. Mol. Brain Res. 16, 353-359.
165. Unwin (1993) Neurotransmitter action opening of ligand gated ion channels. Cell 72/ Neuron 10, 31-11.
166. Vaello M. L., Ruiz-Gómez A., Lerma J., and Mayor F. Jr. (1994) Modulation of the inhibitory glycine receptors by phosphorylation by protein kinase C and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 2002-2008.
167. van den Pol A. and Gorcs T. (1988) Glycine and glycine receptor immunoreactivity in brain and spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 8, 472-492.
168. Varoqui H., Diebler M., Meunier F., Rand J., Usdin T., Bonner T., Eiden L., and Erickson J. D. (1994) Cloning and expression of the vesamicol binding protein from the marine ray Torpedo: homology with the putative vesicular acetylcholine transporter unc-17 from Caenorhabditis elegans. FEBS Lett. 342, 97-102.
169. Wadman W. J., Heinemann U., Konnerth A., and Neuhaus S. (1985) Hippocampal slices of kindled rats reveal calcium involvement in epileptogenesis. Exp. Brain Res. 57, 404-407.
170. Wafford K. A., Bain C. J., Le Bourdellès B., Whiting P. J., and Keemp J. A. (1993) Preferential co-assembly of recombinant NMDA receptors composed of three different subunits. NeuroReport 4, 1347-1349.
171. Wenthold R. and Hunter C. (1990) Immunocytochemistry of glycine and
172. Wenthold R. J., Parakkal M. H., Oberdorfer M. D., and Altschuler R. A. (1988) Glycine receptor immunoreactivity in the ventral cochlear nucleus of the guinea pig. J. Comp. Neurol. 276, 423-435.
173. Wenthold R. J., Huie D., Altschuler R. A., and Reeks K. A. (1987) Glycine immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus and superior olivary complex. Neuroscience 22, 897-912.
174. Werman R., Davidoff R. A., and Aprison M. H. (1967) Inhibition of motoneurons by iontophoresis of glycine. Nature 214, 681-683.
175. White W. F. and Heller, A. H. (1982) Glycine receptor alteration in the mutant mouse spastic. Nature 298, 655-657.
176. Yazulla S. and Kleinschmidt J. (1983) Carrier-mediated release of GABA from retinal horizontal cells. Brain Res. 263, 63-75.
177. Zafra F. and Giménez C. (1986) Characterization of glycine uptake in plasma membrane vesicles isolated from cultured glioblastoma cells Brain Res. 397, 108-116.
178. Zafra F. and Giménez C. (1988) Efflux and exchange of glycine by plasma membrane vesicles isolated from glioblastoma cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 946, 202-208.
179. Zafra F., Alcántara R., Gomeza J., Aragón C., and Giménez C. (1990) Arachidonic acid inhibits glycine transport in cultured glial cells. Biochem.J. 271, 237-242.
180. Zafra F., Aragón C., Olivares L., Danbolt N. C., Giménez C., and Storm-Mathisen J. (1995a) Glycine transporters are differentially expressed among CNS cells. J. Neurosci. 15, 3952-3969.
181. Zafra F., Gomeza J., Olivares L., Aragón C., and Giménez C. (1995b) Regional distribution and developmental variation of the glycine transporters GLYT1 and GLYT2 in the rat CNS. Eur. J. Neurosci. 7, 1342-1352.
182. 3H]strychnine. J. Neurosci. 1, 532-547.