Recreating the Body: Women's Physical Education and the Science of Sex Differences in America, 1900-1940

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 71, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 273-304

  Verbrugge, Martha H ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MALE; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SPORT; UNITED STATES;

FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MALE; PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; SPORTS; UNITED STATES; WOMEN;

EID: 0031155373     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1997.0096     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61-86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
2. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61- 86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
3. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61- 86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
4. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61- 86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
5. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61- 86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
6. Scholarship about concepts and practices that regulate the body has proliferated in recent years. Analyses that draw on poststructuralism and cultural studies are especially common and instructive. For example, see Sandra Lee Bartky, "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power," in Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, ed. Irene Diamond and Lee Quinby (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), pp. 61- 86; Susan R. Bordo, "The Body and the Reproduction of Femininity: A Feminist Appropriation of Foucault," in Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, ed. Alison M. Jaggar and Susan R. Bordo (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989), pp. 13-31 ; Cheryl L. Cole, "Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body," J. Sport Soc. Iss., 1993, 17: 77-97; M. Ann Hall, "Feminism, Theory and the Body: A Response to Cole," ibid., pp. 98-105; M. Ann Hall, Feminism and Sporting Bodies: Essays on Theory and Practice (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1996), pp. 29-68; and Nancy Theberge, "Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport," Quest, 1991, 43: 123-34.
7. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
8. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
9. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
10. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
11. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
12. On trends in the scientific and philosophical foundations of American physical education, see Paula Rogers Lupcho, "The Professionalization of American Physical Education, 1885-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California-Berkeley, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative," J. Sport Hist., 1987, 14: 28-60; idem, "Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 7-20; and idem, Measurement of Physical Fitness: A Historical Perspective, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Monograph Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, [1989]). For discussions of paradigms in twentieth-century physical education, see Anne E. Atwater, "Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, 1980, 51: 193-218; and George A. Brooks, ed., Perspectives on the Academic Discipline of Physical Education: A Tribute to G. Lawrence Rarick (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1981).
13. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
14. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
15. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
16. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
17. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
18. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
19. Historical studies on the gendering of exercise in North America and England include Jennifer A. Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women's Sports (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 42-144; Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds: Women, Sport and Sexuality (Toronto: Women's Press, 1986); Roberta J. Park, "Sport, Gender and Society in a Transatlantic Victorian Perspective," in From "Fair Sex" to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras, ed. J. A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 58-93; Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," in ibid., pp. 256-81; and idem, "'Of No Use without Health': Late Nineteenth-Century Medical Prescriptions for Female Exercise through the Life Span," Women Health, 1988, 14: 89-115. Studies about the gendering of contemporary physical education and sports include Sheila Scraton, Shaping Up to Womanhood: Gender and Girls' Physical Education, Gender and Education Series (Buckingham, U.K.: Open University Press, 1992); and M. Ann Hall, ed., "The Gendering of Sport, Leisure, and Physical Education," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 333-465.
20. See Jackie L. Hudson, "It's Mostly a Matter of Metric," in Women and Sport: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. D. Margaret Costa and Sharon R. Guthrie (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1994), pp. 143-62.
21. For critiques of sex differences and biological determinism as organizing principles in physical education, see Lynda I. A. Birke and Gail Vines, "A Sporting Chance: The Anatomy of Destiny?" Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 337-47; M. Jane Miner, "Women in Sport - A Reflection of the Greater Society?" J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 44-48; Sheila Scraton, "Gender and Physical Education: Ideologies of the Physical and the Politics of Sexuality," in Changing Policies, Changing Teachers: New Directions for Schooling? ed. Stephen Walker and Len Barton (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987), pp. 169-89; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Reclaiming Space, Revisioning the Body: The Quest for Gender-Sensitive Physical Education," Quest, 1992, 44: 373-96.
22. For critiques of sex differences and biological determinism as organizing principles in physical education, see Lynda I. A. Birke and Gail Vines, "A Sporting Chance: The Anatomy of Destiny?" Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 337-47; M. Jane Miner, "Women in Sport - A Reflection of the Greater Society?" J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 44-48; Sheila Scraton, "Gender and Physical Education: Ideologies of the Physical and the Politics of Sexuality," in Changing Policies, Changing Teachers: New Directions for Schooling? ed. Stephen Walker and Len Barton (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987), pp. 169-89; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Reclaiming Space, Revisioning the Body: The Quest for Gender-Sensitive Physical Education," Quest, 1992, 44: 373-96.
23. For critiques of sex differences and biological determinism as organizing principles in physical education, see Lynda I. A. Birke and Gail Vines, "A Sporting Chance: The Anatomy of Destiny?" Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 337-47; M. Jane Miner, "Women in Sport - A Reflection of the Greater Society?" J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 44-48; Sheila Scraton, "Gender and Physical Education: Ideologies of the Physical and the Politics of Sexuality," in Changing Policies, Changing Teachers: New Directions for Schooling? ed. Stephen Walker and Len Barton (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987), pp. 169-89; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Reclaiming Space, Revisioning the Body: The Quest for Gender-Sensitive Physical Education," Quest, 1992, 44: 373-96.
24. For critiques of sex differences and biological determinism as organizing principles in physical education, see Lynda I. A. Birke and Gail Vines, "A Sporting Chance: The Anatomy of Destiny?" Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 337-47; M. Jane Miner, "Women in Sport - A Reflection of the Greater Society?" J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 44-48; Sheila Scraton, "Gender and Physical Education: Ideologies of the Physical and the Politics of Sexuality," in Changing Policies, Changing Teachers: New Directions for Schooling? ed. Stephen Walker and Len Barton (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press, 1987), pp. 169-89; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, "Reclaiming Space, Revisioning the Body: The Quest for Gender-Sensitive Physical Education," Quest, 1992, 44: 373-96.
25. General histories of the field include Mabel Lee, A History of Physical Education and Sports in the U.S.A. (New York: Wiley, 1983); Richard A. Swanson and Betty M. Spears, History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 4th ed. (Madison, Wisc.: Brown and Benchmark, 1995); and centennial issue of J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, April 1985, 56.
26. General histories of the field include Mabel Lee, A History of Physical Education and Sports in the U.S.A. (New York: Wiley, 1983); Richard A. Swanson and Betty M. Spears, History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 4th ed. (Madison, Wisc.: Brown and Benchmark, 1995); and centennial issue of J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, April 1985, 56.
27. General histories of the field include Mabel Lee, A History of Physical Education and Sports in the U.S.A. (New York: Wiley, 1983); Richard A. Swanson and Betty M. Spears, History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 4th ed. (Madison, Wisc.: Brown and Benchmark, 1995); and centennial issue of J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, April 1985, 56.
28. Clearly, this discussion is race- and class-specific. The experiences of white, middle-class women reflected their membership in the majority culture of twentieth-century America. The views of minority female physical educators - for instance, black teachers -are not addressed here for two reasons: first, in practical terms, their ideas are more difficult to uncover; second, their views are distinctive enough to warrant a separate presentation.
29. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23-30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
30. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109-24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
31. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923-1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
32. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
33. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
34. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
35. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
36. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory -Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
37. Discussions of the philosophy of leading white female physical educators in America, and their efforts to implement that philosophy, include Susan K. Cahn, Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York: Free Press, 1994), pp. 23- 30, 55-109; Steveda Chepko, "The Domestication of Basketball," in A Century of Women's Basketball: From Frailty to Final Four, ed. Joan S. Hult and Marianna Trekell (Reston, Va.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1991), pp. 109- 24; Ellen Gerber, "The Controlled Development of Collegiate Sport for Women, 1923- 1936," J. Sport Hist., 1975, 2: 1-28; Cindy L. Himes, The Female Athlete in American Society: 1860-1940 (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986), pp. 63-113, 173-220; Joan S. Hult, "The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women: Leadership by Women Physical Educators, 1899-1949," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport, April 1985, Centennial Issue, pp. 64-77; idem, "The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream, 1890-1985," in Costa and Guthrie, Women and Sport (n. 4), pp. 83-106; and Roberta J. Park and Joan S. Hult, "Women as Leaders in Physical Education and School-Based Sports, 1865 to the 1930s," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, March 1993, 64: 35-40 . For representative primary sources, see Blanche M. Trilling, "The Playtime of a Million Girls or an Olympic Victory - Which?" Nation's Schools, August 1929, 4: 51-54; and Agnes R. Wayman, "Women's Athletics - All Uses - No Abuses," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1924, 29: 517-19.
38. Mabel Lee to Leslie E. Edmonds, 21 January 1933, box "Correspondence-Pro Notes #2," folder "NSWA," Mabel Lee Papers, Archives of American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston, Va. Edmonds was commissioner of the Missouri Valley Association of the Amateur Athletic Union.
39. Mabel Lee, "A Consideration of the Fundamental Differences between Boys and Girls as They Affect the Girls' Program of Physical Education," Education, April 1933, 53: 470-71.
40. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
41. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
42. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
43. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
44. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3-18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
45. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
46. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
47. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New
48. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
49. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
50. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
51. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
52. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
53. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
54. Historical studies that hypothesize some version of accommodationism (as a willing or reluctant strategy) include Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8); Chepko, "Domestication of Basketball" (n. 8); Gerber, "Controlled Development" (n. 8); Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8); Joan S. Hult, "Introduction to Part I,"in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 3- 18; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3) ; Park and Hult, "Women as Leaders" (n. 8); and Nancy Theriot, "Towards a New Sporting Ideal: The Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation," Frontiers, 1978, 3: 1-7. Many of the same sources (especially Himes, Lenskyj, and Theriot) also identify progressive elements in early women's physical education; see also Stephanie L. Twin, "Introduction," in Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport, ed. idem (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), pp. xxxi-xxxii. Questions about separatism versus assimilation and the dichotomy of male/female values also engage contemporary physical educators and athletes. Representative discussions include Susan Birrell, "Separatism as an Issue in Women's Sport," Arena Rev., 1984, 8: 21-29; Susan Birrell and Diana M. Richter, "Is a Diamond Forever?: Feminist Transformations of Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 395-409; Mary E. Duquin, "Feminism and Patriarchy in Physical Education," in Studies in the Sociology of Sport, ed. Aidan O. Dunleavy, Andrew W. Miracle, and C. Roger Rees (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), pp. 167-79; Jennifer A. Hargreaves, "Where's the Virtue? Where's the Grace? A Discussion of the Social Production of Gender Relations in and through Sport," Theory Cult. Soc., 1986, 3: 109-21; Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991); and Nancy Theberge, "Sport and Women's Empowerment," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 387-93.
55. Few scholars have considered, in depth, how women teachers conceptualized the female body in the early 1900s. One noteworthy exception is Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). Also useful is Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman: Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1990), which focuses on medical opinions, not those of professional physical educators.
56. Few scholars have considered, in depth, how women teachers conceptualized the female body in the early 1900s. One noteworthy exception is Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). Also useful is Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman: Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1990), which focuses on medical opinions, not those of professional physical educators.
57. See Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity-Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978); Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989). Although the authors agree (in many respects) about intellectual trends in sexual science at the turn of the century, their explanations of how and why such changes occurred differ.
58. See Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity- Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978); Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989). Although the authors agree (in many respects) about intellectual trends in sexual science at the turn of the century, their explanations of how and why such changes occurred differ.
59. See Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity- Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978); Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989). Although the authors agree (in many respects) about intellectual trends in sexual science at the turn of the century, their explanations of how and why such changes occurred differ.
60. See Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity- Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978); Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989). Although the authors agree (in many respects) about intellectual trends in sexual science at the turn of the century, their explanations of how and why such changes occurred differ.
61. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
62. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
63. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
64. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
65. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
66. Some scholars regard sexual dualism as a fairly old premise in Western culture: see Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture, Cambridge History of Medicine Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Other historians portray sexual dualism as a more recent concept: see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Science and Literature Series (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); and idem. Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). In the twentieth century, discoveries in several scientific fields, including biochemistry and endocrinology, refuted sexual dualism; nevertheless, researchers did not abandon a bipolar model of the human body. See Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994), especially pp. 144-48.
67. See the references in n. 13.
68. Both Degler, In Search of Human Nature (n. 13 ), and Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (n. 13), make this point. Cravens argues that, by the 1930s, theories of evolution presented nature and nurture as "distinct but interdependent variables" (Triumph of Evolution [n. 13], p. xi; emphasis in original).
69. Both Degler, In Search of Human Nature (n. 13 ), and Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (n. 13), make this point. Cravens argues that, by the 1930s, theories of evolution presented nature and nurture as "distinct but interdependent variables" (Triumph of Evolution [n. 13], p. xi; emphasis in original).
70. Both Degler, In Search of Human Nature (n. 13 ), and Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (n. 13), make this point. Cravens argues that, by the 1930s, theories of evolution presented nature and nurture as "distinct but interdependent variables" (Triumph of Evolution [n. 13], p. xi; emphasis in original).
71. Exceptions will be cited in later notes.
72. The scarcity of research in physical education dismayed science-based members of the profession. In fact, a conflict over the relative importance of research versus teaching, of the laboratory versus the gym, fractured American physical education in the early twentieth century (and continues to do so today). Analyses of that rift include Roberta J. Park, "The Research Quarterly and Its Antecedents," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport. 1980, 51: 1-22; and idem, "The Emergence of the Academic Discipline of Physical Education in the United Sates," in Brooks, Perspectives (n. 2), pp. 20-45. Physical educators' neglect of original research does not mean that they relinquished all claims or aspirations for their profession as a "science"; as members of a body-centered discipline, they still adopted the language, the concepts, and even the respectability of science, without actually becoming scientists. For an overview of female researchers affiliated with physical education, see Roberta J. Park, "The Contributions of Women to Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, 1870-1994," Women Sport Phys. Activ. J., 1995, 3:41-69.
73. The scarcity of research in physical education dismayed science-based members of the profession. In fact, a conflict over the relative importance of research versus teaching, of the laboratory versus the gym, fractured American physical education in the early twentieth century (and continues to do so today). Analyses of that rift include Roberta J. Park, "The Research Quarterly and Its Antecedents," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport. 1980, 51: 1-22; and idem, "The Emergence of the Academic Discipline of Physical Education in the United Sates," in Brooks, Perspectives (n. 2), pp. 20-45. Physical educators' neglect of original research does not mean that they relinquished all claims or aspirations for their profession as a "science"; as members of a body-centered discipline, they still adopted the language, the concepts, and even the respectability of science, without actually becoming scientists. For an overview of female researchers affiliated with physical education, see Roberta J. Park, "The Contributions of Women to Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, 1870-1994," Women Sport Phys. Activ. J., 1995, 3:41-69.
74. The scarcity of research in physical education dismayed science-based members of the profession. In fact, a conflict over the relative importance of research versus teaching, of the laboratory versus the gym, fractured American physical education in the early twentieth century (and continues to do so today). Analyses of that rift include Roberta J. Park, "The Research Quarterly and Its Antecedents," Res. Quart. Exerc. Sport. 1980, 51: 1-22; and idem, "The Emergence of the Academic Discipline of Physical Education in the United Sates," in Brooks, Perspectives (n. 2), pp. 20-45. Physical educators' neglect of original research does not mean that they relinquished all claims or aspirations for their profession as a "science"; as members of a body-centered discipline, they still adopted the language, the concepts, and even the respectability of science, without actually becoming scientists. For an overview of female researchers affiliated with physical education, see Roberta J. Park, "The Contributions of Women to Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, 1870-1994," Women Sport Phys. Activ. J., 1995, 3:41-69.
75. Discussions of physical differences include Elizabeth Burchenal, "Athletics for Girls," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Official Rules Revised for 1916-17 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1916), pp. 82-89; Mabel Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1937), pp. 68-70, 436-38; Hazel H. Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Revised Rules 1919-20 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1919), p. 66; and Agnes R. Wayman, A Modern Philosophy of Physical Education with Special Implications for Girls and Women and for the College Freshman Program (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1938), pp. 165-66. From their inception in the early 1900s, the Guides included official rules for various sports, as well as articles by leading physical educators. Originally, the booklets were a collaboration between the Spalding Company and women's committees affiliated with the American Physical Education Association; over time, the publisher changed, as did the names of the committees and national organization.
76. Discussions of physical differences include Elizabeth Burchenal, "Athletics for Girls," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Official Rules Revised for 1916-17 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1916), pp. 82-89; Mabel Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1937), pp. 68-70, 436-38; Hazel H. Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Revised Rules 1919-20 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1919), p. 66; and Agnes R. Wayman, A Modern Philosophy of Physical Education with Special Implications for Girls and Women and for the College Freshman Program (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1938), pp. 165-66. From their inception in the early 1900s, the Guides included official rules for various sports, as well as articles by leading physical educators. Originally, the booklets were a collaboration between the Spalding Company and women's committees affiliated with the American Physical Education Association; over time, the publisher changed, as did the names of the committees and national organization.
77. Discussions of physical differences include Elizabeth Burchenal, "Athletics for Girls," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Official Rules Revised for 1916-17 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1916), pp. 82-89; Mabel Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1937), pp. 68-70, 436-38; Hazel H. Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Revised Rules 1919-20 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1919), p. 66; and Agnes R. Wayman, A Modern Philosophy of Physical Education with Special Implications for Girls and Women and for the College Freshman Program (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1938), pp. 165-66. From their inception in the early 1900s, the Guides included official rules for various sports, as well as articles by leading physical educators. Originally, the booklets were a collaboration between the Spalding Company and women's committees affiliated with the American Physical Education Association; over time, the publisher changed, as did the names of the committees and national organization.
78. Discussions of physical differences include Elizabeth Burchenal, "Athletics for Girls," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Official Rules Revised for 1916-17 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1916), pp. 82-89; Mabel Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1937), pp. 68-70, 436-38; Hazel H. Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women Containing the Revised Rules 1919-20 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1919), p. 66; and Agnes R. Wayman, A Modern Philosophy of Physical Education with Special Implications for Girls and Women and for the College Freshman Program (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1938), pp. 165-66. From their inception in the early 1900s, the Guides included official rules for various sports, as well as articles by leading physical educators. Originally, the booklets were a collaboration between the Spalding Company and women's committees affiliated with the American Physical Education Association; over time, the publisher changed, as did the names of the committees and national organization.
79. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
80. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
81. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
82. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
83. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
84. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
85. These and other limitations were covered in Margaret Bell, M.D., "Why, from the Health Point of View, We Urge Girls' Rules for Girls," in A Handbook of Basketball for Women, ed. Eline von Borries (Baltimore: Sutherland, 1929), p. 14; Ethel Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1934), p. xiii; Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68; Helen Frost and Charles Digby Wardlaw, Basket Ball and Indoor Baseball for Women (New York: Scribner, 1936), pp. 10-11, 13, 14; Elizabeth Burchenal, "A Constructive Program of Athletics for School Girls: Policy, Method and Activities," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1919, 24: 272; Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1940), pp. 32, 41-48; and Alice W. Frymir, Track and Field for Women (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), p. 82.
86. Dorothy Sumption, Sports for Women (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940), p. 135.
87. Helen Frost, "Soccer - Introductory," in Official Handbook of the National Committee on Women's Athletics of the American Physical Education Association, Containing the General Policies of the Committee and the Official Rules for Swimming, Track and Field [and] Soccer (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1923), p. 107.
88. Lee, Conduct of Physical Education (n. 19), pp. 70, 437; Marjorie Bateman, "Health Aspects of Girls' Basketball," Mind Body, April 1935, 42: 22; Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), pp. 18-19; and Emma Fuller Waterman, "The Physiologic and Anatomic Basis for the Selection and Limitation of Women's Motor Activities" (M.A. thesis, Department of Hygiene and Physical Education, Wellesley College, 1925), pp. 44-62, 73.
89. Lee, Conduct of Physical Education (n. 19), pp. 70, 437; Marjorie Bateman, "Health Aspects of Girls' Basketball," Mind Body, April 1935, 42: 22; Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), pp. 18-19; and Emma Fuller Waterman, "The Physiologic and Anatomic Basis for the Selection and Limitation of Women's Motor Activities" (M.A. thesis, Department of Hygiene and Physical Education, Wellesley College, 1925), pp. 44-62, 73.
90. Lee, Conduct of Physical Education (n. 19), pp. 70, 437; Marjorie Bateman, "Health Aspects of Girls' Basketball," Mind Body, April 1935, 42: 22; Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), pp. 18-19; and Emma Fuller Waterman, "The Physiologic and Anatomic Basis for the Selection and Limitation of Women's Motor Activities" (M.A. thesis, Department of Hygiene and Physical Education, Wellesley College, 1925), pp. 44-62, 73.
91. Lee, Conduct of Physical Education (n. 19), pp. 70, 437; Marjorie Bateman, "Health Aspects of Girls' Basketball," Mind Body, April 1935, 42: 22; Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), pp. 18-19; and Emma Fuller Waterman, "The Physiologic and Anatomic Basis for the Selection and Limitation of Women's Motor Activities" (M.A. thesis, Department of Hygiene and Physical Education, Wellesley College, 1925), pp. 44-62, 73.
92. The following observations are based on my survey of nearly fifty articles about physical sex differences published in scientific journals in America and abroad between 1900 and 1940; typical sources included the American Journal of Physiology, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Journal of the American Medical Association, and Journal of Physiology. For a contemporary and even-handed review of some of that literature, written by a male physical educator, see Roy B. Moore, "An Analytical Study of Sex Differences as They Affect the Program of Physical Education," Res. Quart., 1941, 12: 587-608.
93. The following observations are based on my survey of nearly fifty articles about physical sex differences published in scientific journals in America and abroad between 1900 and 1940; typical sources included the American Journal of Physiology, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Journal of the American Medical Association, and Journal of Physiology. For a contemporary and even-handed review of some of that literature, written by a male physical educator, see Roy B. Moore, "An Analytical Study of Sex Differences as They Affect the Program of Physical Education," Res. Quart., 1941, 12: 587-608.
94. Some women cited only like-minded references, or misrepresented their sources' positions; examples include Agnes R. Wayman, Education through Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women, 2d ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1928), pp. 201-2; and Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68. By contrast, some female physical educators were well informed about sex-difference research, and conscientious about their sources; they included Gertrude Dudley, Alice Frymir, and Florence Somers.
95. Some women cited only like-minded references, or misrepresented their sources' positions; examples include Agnes R. Wayman, Education through Physical Education: Its Organization and Administration for Girls and Women, 2d ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1928), pp. 201-2; and Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 467-68. By contrast, some female physical educators were well informed about sex-difference research, and conscientious about their sources; they included Gertrude Dudley, Alice Frymir, and Florence Somers.
96. The primary literature on menstruation and exercise is vast, and deserves a case study in its own right; see Martha H. Verbrugge, "Gym Periods and Monthly Periods: The Question of Exercise and Menstruation in American Physical Education, 1900-1940" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996). Though cautious, the attitudes of female physical educators about menstruation tended to be less extreme than those of many contemporary physicians and physiologists. Some women teachers actively demystified the monthly cycle; for example, see Helen McKinstry, "The Hygiene of Menstruation," Mary Hemenway Alumnae Assoc. Bull., 1916-17, pp. 15-27. Secondary studies include Nancy Cole Dosch, "'The Sacrifice of Maidens" or Healthy Sportswomen? The Medical Debate over Women's Basketball," in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 125-36; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), especially pp. 25-53; and Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman (n. 12), pp. 39-68.
97. The primary literature on menstruation and exercise is vast, and deserves a case study in its own right; see Martha H. Verbrugge, "Gym Periods and Monthly Periods: The Question of Exercise and Menstruation in American Physical Education, 1900-1940" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996). Though cautious, the attitudes of female physical educators about menstruation tended to be less extreme than those of many contemporary physicians and physiologists. Some women teachers actively demystified the monthly cycle; for example, see Helen McKinstry, "The Hygiene of Menstruation," Mary Hemenway Alumnae Assoc. Bull., 1916-17, pp. 15-27. Secondary studies include Nancy Cole Dosch, "'The Sacrifice of Maidens" or Healthy Sportswomen? The Medical Debate over Women's Basketball," in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 125-36; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), especially pp. 25-53; and Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman (n. 12), pp. 39-68.
98. The primary literature on menstruation and exercise is vast, and deserves a case study in its own right; see Martha H. Verbrugge, "Gym Periods and Monthly Periods: The Question of Exercise and Menstruation in American Physical Education, 1900-1940" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996). Though cautious, the attitudes of female physical educators about menstruation tended to be less extreme than those of many contemporary physicians and physiologists. Some women teachers actively demystified the monthly cycle; for example, see Helen McKinstry, "The Hygiene of Menstruation," Mary Hemenway Alumnae Assoc. Bull., 1916-17, pp. 15-27. Secondary studies include Nancy Cole Dosch, "'The Sacrifice of Maidens" or Healthy Sportswomen? The Medical Debate over Women's Basketball," in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 125-36; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), especially pp. 25-53; and Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman (n. 12), pp. 39-68.
99. The primary literature on menstruation and exercise is vast, and deserves a case study in its own right; see Martha H. Verbrugge, "Gym Periods and Monthly Periods: The Question of Exercise and Menstruation in American Physical Education, 1900-1940" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996). Though cautious, the attitudes of female physical educators about menstruation tended to be less extreme than those of many contemporary physicians and physiologists. Some women teachers actively demystified the monthly cycle; for example, see Helen McKinstry, "The Hygiene of Menstruation," Mary Hemenway Alumnae Assoc. Bull., 1916-17, pp. 15-27. Secondary studies include Nancy Cole Dosch, "'The Sacrifice of Maidens" or Healthy Sportswomen? The Medical Debate over Women's Basketball," in Hult and Trekell, Century of Women's Basketball (n. 8), pp. 125-36; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), especially pp. 25-53; and Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman (n. 12), pp. 39-68.
100. For example, see Lois Pedersen Broady, Health and Physical Education for Small Schools (Lincoln: Teachers College and the University Extension Division, University of Nebraska, 1937), pp. 84-86; Alice W. Frymir, Basket Ball for Women - How to Coach and Play the Game (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 25-27, 239-40; Carol M. Rice, M.D., "Physical Fitness and Training for Strenuous Sports and Competitive Athletics," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1936), pp. 25-26; Lillian Schoedler, "Girls' Athletics - Wise and Otherwise," Child Welfare Mag., June 1926, 20: 593; and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 163-66.
101. For example, see Lois Pedersen Broady, Health and Physical Education for Small Schools (Lincoln: Teachers College and the University Extension Division, University of Nebraska, 1937), pp. 84-86; Alice W. Frymir, Basket Ball for Women - How to Coach and Play the Game (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 25-27, 239-40; Carol M. Rice, M.D., "Physical Fitness and Training for Strenuous Sports and Competitive Athletics," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1936), pp. 25-26; Lillian Schoedler, "Girls' Athletics - Wise and Otherwise," Child Welfare Mag., June 1926, 20: 593; and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 163-66.
102. For example, see Lois Pedersen Broady, Health and Physical Education for Small Schools (Lincoln: Teachers College and the University Extension Division, University of Nebraska, 1937), pp. 84-86; Alice W. Frymir, Basket Ball for Women - How to Coach and Play the Game (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 25-27, 239-40; Carol M. Rice, M.D., "Physical Fitness and Training for Strenuous Sports and Competitive Athletics," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1936), pp. 25-26; Lillian Schoedler, "Girls' Athletics - Wise and Otherwise," Child Welfare Mag., June 1926, 20: 593; and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 163-66.
103. For example, see Lois Pedersen Broady, Health and Physical Education for Small Schools (Lincoln: Teachers College and the University Extension Division, University of Nebraska, 1937), pp. 84-86; Alice W. Frymir, Basket Ball for Women - How to Coach and Play the Game (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 25-27, 239-40; Carol M. Rice, M.D., "Physical Fitness and Training for Strenuous Sports and Competitive Athletics," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1936), pp. 25-26; Lillian Schoedler, "Girls' Athletics - Wise and Otherwise," Child Welfare Mag., June 1926, 20: 593; and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 163-66.
104. For example, see Lois Pedersen Broady, Health and Physical Education for Small Schools (Lincoln: Teachers College and the University Extension Division, University of Nebraska, 1937), pp. 84-86; Alice W. Frymir, Basket Ball for Women - How to Coach and Play the Game (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 25-27, 239-40; Carol M. Rice, M.D., "Physical Fitness and Training for Strenuous Sports and Competitive Athletics," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1936), pp. 25-26; Lillian Schoedler, "Girls' Athletics - Wise and Otherwise," Child Welfare Mag., June 1926, 20: 593; and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 163-66.
105. Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), p. 468.
106. Helen McKinstry, "Introduction," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1917-18 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1917), p. 4.
107. For example, see Harriet I. Ballintine, The Value of Athletics to College Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1901, 6: 151-53. Field hockey advocates often expressed the most liberal views; see, for example, Anne Pugh, "Interscholastic Squad Competition," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide, 1930 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1930), pp. 23-25.
108. For example, see Harriet I. Ballintine, The Value of Athletics to College Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1901, 6: 151-53. Field hockey advocates often expressed the most liberal views; see, for example, Anne Pugh, "Interscholastic Squad Competition," in Spalding's Official Field Hockey Guide, 1930 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1930), pp. 23-25.
109. Wayman, Modern Philosophy (n. 19), p. 166 (emphasis in original).
110. McKinstry, "Introduction" (n. 29), p. 4.
111. Helen W. Hazelton, "Outdoor Baseball for Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1929, 34: 241.
112. Ibid.
113. Helen N. Smith, "Athletic Education," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1927, 32: 610.
114. Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), p. 34. Leslie Sawtelle applied a similar argument to basketball in "The Interpretation of Basket Ball Rules," in Basket Ball for Women: A Guide for Player, Coach and Official, ed. Dorothy Bocker (New York: Thos. E. Wilson, 1920), pp. 78-81.
115. Frymir, Track and Field (n. 20), p. 34. Leslie Sawtelle applied a similar argument to basketball in "The Interpretation of Basket Ball Rules," in Basket Ball for Women: A Guide for Player, Coach and Official, ed. Dorothy Bocker (New York: Thos. E. Wilson, 1920), pp. 78-81.
116. Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
117. See n. 13.
118. Among the women who were best informed about social science research were Florence Somers of the Sargent School of Physical Education, and Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor of the University of Chicago (on Kellor, see n. 42 below). On the ascendance of psychosocial themes, see Park, "Physiologists, Physicians" (n. 2).
119. Authors who regarded human personality as bipolar include Lee, "Fundamental Differences" (n. 10), pp. 468-69;
120. and Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), pp. 128-29.
121. Those who saw the needs of men and women as similar, even identical, include Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor, Athletic Games in the Education of Women (New York: Henry Holt, 1909), pp. 24-25;
122. Ina E. Gittings, "Why Cramp Competition?" J. Health Phys. Educ., January 1931, 2: 10-12, 54;
123. and Helen Norman Smith and Helen Leslie Coops, Physical and Health Education: Principles and Procedures (New York: American Book Co., 1938), pp. 72-78.
124. Trilling, "Playtime" (n. 8), p. 54. For equally negative descriptions, see Florence D. Alden, "Introduction," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women, 1921-22 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1921), p. 4; Helen Downie, "What Physical Education Owes Socially, Morally and Biologically to the Girl under Fifteen," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1911, 16: 509; and Beulah Kennard, "Playground Activities for Girls between Nine and Fourteen Years of Age," ibid., pp. 513-14.
125. Trilling, "Playtime" (n. 8), p. 54. For equally negative descriptions, see Florence D. Alden, "Introduction," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women, 1921-22 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1921), p. 4; Helen Downie, "What Physical Education Owes Socially, Morally and Biologically to the Girl under Fifteen," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1911, 16: 509; and Beulah Kennard, "Playground Activities for Girls between Nine and Fourteen Years of Age," ibid., pp. 513-14.
126. Trilling, "Playtime" (n. 8), p. 54. For equally negative descriptions, see Florence D. Alden, "Introduction," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women, 1921-22 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1921), p. 4; Helen Downie, "What Physical Education Owes Socially, Morally and Biologically to the Girl under Fifteen," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1911, 16: 509; and Beulah Kennard, "Playground Activities for Girls between Nine and Fourteen Years of Age," ibid., pp. 513-14.
127. Trilling, "Playtime" (n. 8), p. 54. For equally negative descriptions, see Florence D. Alden, "Introduction," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women, 1921-22 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1921), p. 4; Helen Downie, "What Physical Education Owes Socially, Morally and Biologically to the Girl under Fifteen," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1911, 16: 509; and Beulah Kennard, "Playground Activities for Girls between Nine and Fourteen Years of Age," ibid., pp. 513-14.
128. Frances A. Kellor, "Ethical Value of Sports for Women," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1906, 11: 164 . At the turn of the century, Kellor undertook graduate studies in sociology at the University of Chicago; for at least five years she also taught physical education at the school and a nearby settlement home. She later became a noted social analyst and reformer. See the biographical sketch by Lucille O'Connell in Notable American Women: The Modern Period - A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 393-95.
129. Frances A. Kellor, "Ethical Value of Sports for Women," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1906, 11: 164 . At the turn of the century, Kellor undertook graduate studies in sociology at the University of Chicago; for at least five years she also taught physical education at the school and a nearby settlement home. She later became a noted social analyst and reformer. See the biographical sketch by Lucille O'Connell in Notable American Women: The Modern Period - A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 393-95.
130. Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), p. 164.
131. Florence D. Alden, "Basket Ball for Girls in Recreation Centers," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 96-97. See also Helen W. Hazelton, "Advantages of a Point System in Athletics for High School Girls," in Women and Athletics, ed. Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 60-61.
132. Florence D. Alden, "Basket Ball for Girls in Recreation Centers," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 96-97. See also Helen W. Hazelton, "Advantages of a Point System in Athletics for High School Girls," in Women and Athletics, ed. Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1930), pp. 60-61.
133. Broady, Health and Physical Education (n. 27), p. 104. See also Anna S. Cressman, "A Plan of Athletics and Honors for High School Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1917, 22: 420; Elizabeth Halsey, "Baseball as a Means of Social Adaptation," in Spalding's Official Outdoor Baseball [Guide] for Girls and Women, 1929 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1929), pp. 6-9; and Marie L. Simes, "The Destination in Girls' Basketball," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women and Girls, 1937-38 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1937), pp. 36-37.
134. Broady, Health and Physical Education (n. 27), p. 104. See also Anna S. Cressman, "A Plan of Athletics and Honors for High School Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1917, 22: 420; Elizabeth Halsey, "Baseball as a Means of Social Adaptation," in Spalding's Official Outdoor Baseball [Guide] for Girls and Women, 1929 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1929), pp. 6-9; and Marie L. Simes, "The Destination in Girls' Basketball," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women and Girls, 1937-38 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1937), pp. 36-37.
135. Broady, Health and Physical Education (n. 27), p. 104. See also Anna S. Cressman, "A Plan of Athletics and Honors for High School Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1917, 22: 420; Elizabeth Halsey, "Baseball as a Means of Social Adaptation," in Spalding's Official Outdoor Baseball [Guide] for Girls and Women, 1929 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1929), pp. 6-9; and Marie L. Simes, "The Destination in Girls' Basketball," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women and Girls, 1937-38 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1937), pp. 36-37.
136. Broady, Health and Physical Education (n. 27), p. 104. See also Anna S. Cressman, "A Plan of Athletics and Honors for High School Girls," Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1917, 22: 420; Elizabeth Halsey, "Baseball as a Means of Social Adaptation," in Spalding's Official Outdoor Baseball [Guide] for Girls and Women, 1929 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1929), pp. 6-9; and Marie L. Simes, "The Destination in Girls' Basketball," in Spalding's Official Basketball Guide for Women and Girls, 1937-38 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1937), pp. 36-37.
137. For instance, Lillia Belle Otto, "The Demands for the Twentieth Century Girl - Are We Prepared for Them?" Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1916, 21: 363-68, discusses evolutionary theory. Agnes R. Wayman argued that women's endocrine system made them emotional and unstable: see Modern Philosophy (n. 19), p. 62; and "Concepts of Physical Education for Girls and Women," Sportswoman, May 1935, 11: 10. Reductionist biological arguments became more common during the 1940s.
138. For instance, Lillia Belle Otto, "The Demands for the Twentieth Century Girl - Are We Prepared for Them?" Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1916, 21: 363-68, discusses evolutionary theory. Agnes R. Wayman argued that women's endocrine system made them emotional and unstable: see Modern Philosophy (n. 19), p. 62; and "Concepts of Physical Education for Girls and Women," Sportswoman, May 1935, 11: 10. Reductionist biological arguments became more common during the 1940s.
139. For instance, Lillia Belle Otto, "The Demands for the Twentieth Century Girl - Are We Prepared for Them?" Amer. Phys. Educ. Rev., 1916, 21: 363-68, discusses evolutionary theory. Agnes R. Wayman argued that women's endocrine system made them emotional and unstable: see Modern Philosophy (n. 19), p. 62; and "Concepts of Physical Education for Girls and Women," Sportswoman, May 1935, 11: 10. Reductionist biological arguments became more common during the 1940s.
140. Beulah Kennard, "What the Playground Can Do for Girls," in Proceedings of the Second Annual Playground Congress (New York: Playground Association of America, 1908), pp. 95-101.
141. Smith and Coops, Physical and Health Education (n. 40), p. 66. See also Florence D. Alden, "The Making of a Recreation Center," Playground, July 1916, 10: 128; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Play," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 53-54; Rosalind Cassidy, "An Activity Program for College Women in 1930 as Organized at Mills College, California," Sportswoman, May 1930, 6: 7; and Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
142. Smith and Coops, Physical and Health Education (n. 40), p. 66. See also Florence D. Alden, "The Making of a Recreation Center," Playground, July 1916, 10: 128; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Play," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 53-54; Rosalind Cassidy, "An Activity Program for College Women in 1930 as Organized at Mills College, California," Sportswoman, May 1930, 6: 7; and Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
143. Smith and Coops, Physical and Health Education (n. 40), p. 66. See also Florence D. Alden, "The Making of a Recreation Center," Playground, July 1916, 10: 128; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Play," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 53-54; Rosalind Cassidy, "An Activity Program for College Women in 1930 as Organized at Mills College, California," Sportswoman, May 1930, 6: 7; and Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
144. Smith and Coops, Physical and Health Education (n. 40), p. 66. See also Florence D. Alden, "The Making of a Recreation Center," Playground, July 1916, 10: 128; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Play," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 53-54; Rosalind Cassidy, "An Activity Program for College Women in 1930 as Organized at Mills College, California," Sportswoman, May 1930, 6: 7; and Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
145. Smith and Coops, Physical and Health Education (n. 40), p. 66. See also Florence D. Alden, "The Making of a Recreation Center," Playground, July 1916, 10: 128; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Play," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 53-54; Rosalind Cassidy, "An Activity Program for College Women in 1930 as Organized at Mills College, California," Sportswoman, May 1930, 6: 7; and Pratt, "Women's versus Men's Basket Ball Rules" (n. 19), p. 66.
146. Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (n. 20), p. xiii. See also Sawtelle, "Interpretation of Basket Ball Rules" (n. 36), p. 81.
147. Bowers, Recreation for Girls and Women (n. 20), p. xiii. See also Sawtelle, "Interpretation of Basket Ball Rules" (n. 36), p. 81.
148. Alden, "Basket Ball for Girls" (n. 44), p. 97.
149. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
150. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
151. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
152. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
153. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
154. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
155. For glowing descriptions of physically active women (trained under proper conditions), see Jessie H. Bancroft, "Character Development and Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1911-12 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1911), pp. 38-39; Dorothy Bocker, "Team Development," in Bocker, Basket Ball for Women (n. 36), pp. 22-25; Hazel J. Cubberley, "Teamplay in Soccer for Girls," Sportswoman, 15 February 1925, 1: 2-3; Gertrude Dudley, "Citizenship through Games," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1918-19 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1918), pp. 68-69; Dudley and Kellor, Athletic Games (n. 40), pp. 26-44; Kellor, "Ethical Value" (n. 42), pp. 165-71; and J. Anna Norris, "The Beneficial Results and Dangers of Basket Ball," in Spalding's . . . Guide . . . 1918-19 (n. 51), pp. 70-71.
156. Kathryn E. Darnell, "Abuse of Basket Ball," in Spalding's Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, 1913-14 (New York: American Sports Publishing, 1913), p. 56.
157. Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), p. 60 (emphasis in original).
158. Ibid., p. 128.
159. For further discussion of the women's philosophy, see the references in n. 8. For evidence of the philosophy's limited success, see Hult, "Governance of Athletics" (n. 8).
160. Far less is known about the views and careers of female physical educators of other races. On black teachers, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 68-70; and Cindy Himes Gissendanner, "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Women, Sport, and Culture, ed. Susan Birrell and Cheryl L. Cole (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1994), pp. 81-92.
161. Far less is known about the views and careers of female physical educators of other races. On black teachers, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 68-70; and Cindy Himes Gissendanner, "African-American Women and Competitive Sport, 1920-1960," in Women, Sport, and Culture, ed. Susan Birrell and Cheryl L. Cole (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1994), pp. 81-92.
162. Wayman, Education through Physical Education (n. 25), p. 170.
163. Helen M. McKinstry, "Athletics for Girls," Playground, July 1909, 3: 6-7.
164. For example, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 23-29, 76; and Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8), p. 65.
165. For example, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 23-29, 76; and Himes, Female Athlete (n. 8), p. 65.
166. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251- 65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
167. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251- 65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
168. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251- 65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
169. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251-65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
170. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251- 65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
171. For historical analyses, see Cahn, Coming on Strong (n. 8), pp. 164-245; Susan K. Cahn, "Crushes, Competition, and Closets: The Emergence of Homophobia in Women's Physical Education," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 327-39; and Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3). pp. 55-93. For contemporary perspectives, see Pat Griffin, "Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport," Quest, 1992, 44: 251- 65; Lenskyj, Out of Bounds (n. 3), pp. 95-107; and Helen Lenskyj, "Female Sexuality and Women's Sport," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1987, 10: 381-86.
172. See the references in n. 51.
173. Few studies credit female physical educators with an active role in expanding American ideas about womanhood. One exception is Hult, "Introduction" (n. 11), p. 4. Descriptions of cultural standards of femininity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries include Lois W. Banner, American Beauty: A Social History, through Two Centuries, of the American Idea, Ideal, and Image of the Beautiful Woman (New York: Knopf, 1983), pp. 128- 225; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), pp. 45-91.
174. Few studies credit female physical educators with an active role in expanding American ideas about womanhood. One exception is Hult, "Introduction" (n. 11), p. 4. Descriptions of cultural standards of femininity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries include Lois W. Banner, American Beauty: A Social History, through Two Centuries, of the American Idea, Ideal, and Image of the Beautiful Woman (New York: Knopf, 1983), pp. 128-225; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), pp. 45-91.
175. Few studies credit female physical educators with an active role in expanding American ideas about womanhood. One exception is Hult, "Introduction" (n. 11), p. 4. Descriptions of cultural standards of femininity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries include Lois W. Banner, American Beauty: A Social History, through Two Centuries, of the American Idea, Ideal, and Image of the Beautiful Woman (New York: Knopf, 1983), pp. 128- 225; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), pp. 45-91.
176. Ethel Perrin, "Outdoor Recreation as a Factor in Child Welfare," Playground, July 1924, 18: 242.
177. Ibid.
178. Ibid., p. 241 (emphasis in original).
179. See Nancy F. Cott, "Feminist Theory and Feminist Movements: The Past Before Us," in What Is Feminism? A Re-Examination, ed. Juliet Mitchell and Ann Oakley (New York: Pantheon, 1986), pp. 49-62; Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 11-50; and Carol Lee Bacchi, Same Difference: Feminism and Sexual Difference (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1990), pp. 6-28.
180. See Nancy F. Cott, "Feminist Theory and Feminist Movements: The Past Before Us," in What Is Feminism? A Re-Examination, ed. Juliet Mitchell and Ann Oakley (New York: Pantheon, 1986), pp. 49-62; Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 11-50; and Carol Lee Bacchi, Same Difference: Feminism and Sexual Difference (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1990), pp. 6-28.
181. See Nancy F. Cott, "Feminist Theory and Feminist Movements: The Past Before Us," in What Is Feminism? A Re-Examination, ed. Juliet Mitchell and Ann Oakley (New York: Pantheon, 1986), pp. 49-62; Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 11-50; and Carol Lee Bacchi, Same Difference: Feminism and Sexual Difference (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1990), pp. 6-28.
182. On female physicians, see Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 56-61, 184-202.
183. Bacchi, Same Difference (n. 66), pp. 6-28 passim, makes this vital point about American and British women.
184. Rosi Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in Contemporary Feminist Theory, Gender and Culture Series (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), p. 148.
185. Joan W. Scott, "Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: Or, The Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism," Fem. Studies, 1988, 14: 39. Scott argues that constructing equality and difference as oppositional terms is intellectually and politically hazardous.
186. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
187. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
188. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
189. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
190. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
191. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
192. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
193. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
194. In addition to Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70), see critiques and solutions offered in Braidotti, Nomadic Subjects (n. 69), pp. 146-90; Christine Di Stefano, "Dilemmas of Difference: Feminism, Modernity, and Postmodernism," in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. Linda J. Nicholson (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 63-82; Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs, Summer 1987, 12: 621-43; and several essays in Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference, ed. Deborah L. Rhode (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990): Deborah L. Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference," pp. 1-9; Karen Offen, "Feminism and Sexual Difference in Historical Perspective," pp. 13-20; Alison M. Jaggar, "Sexual Difference and Sexual Equality," pp. 239-54; and Estelle B. Freedman, "Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference: An Overview," pp. 257-61.
195. For discussions related to contemporary physical education, see the references in nn. 5 and 11.
196. On trends in the scientific foundations and ambitions of the field, see the references in n. 2.
197. Perrin, "Outdoor Recreation" (n. 63), p. 241 (emphasis in original).
198. In recent years scholars have debated the value of, and relationships between, women's "separate spheres," "women's culture," and feminism as historiographic concepts. See "Politics and Culture in Women's History: A Symposium," Fem. Studies, 1980, 6: 26-64; and Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," J. Amer. Hist., 1988, 75: 9-39.
199. In recent years scholars have debated the value of, and relationships between, women's "separate spheres," "women's culture," and feminism as historiographic concepts. See "Politics and Culture in Women's History: A Symposium," Fem. Studies, 1980, 6: 26-64; and Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," J. Amer. Hist., 1988, 75: 9-39.
200. For a contemporary analysis of celebration versus denial, see Rhode, "Theoretical Perspectives" (n. 71).
201. For an incisive discussion about the shortcomings of narrow constructs and dichotomies, see Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70). For a critique of binary categories in feminist theory, see Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations" (n. 71).
202. For an incisive discussion about the shortcomings of narrow constructs and dichotomies, see Scott, "Deconstructing" (n. 70). For a critique of binary categories in feminist theory, see Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations" (n. 71).
203. An example dealing with sexual science in turn-of-the-century America is Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (n. 13). A similar point is made - about medieval concepts of sex - in Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference (n. 14).
204. An example dealing with sexual science in turn-of-the-century America is Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (n. 13). A similar point is made - about medieval concepts of sex - in Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference (n. 14).
205. To the dismay of many women in the field, the "merger" of departments has increased the number of male administrators and coaches overseeing female activities nationwide. See the following articles by R. Vivian Acosta and Linda Jean Carpenter: "Women in Athletics: A Status Report," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, August 1985, 56: 30-34; "As the Years Go By - Coaching Opportunities in the 1990s," ibid., March 1992, 63: 36-41; and "The Status of Women in Intercollegiate Athletics," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 111-18.
206. To the dismay of many women in the field, the "merger" of departments has increased the number of male administrators and coaches overseeing female activities nationwide. See the following articles by R. Vivian Acosta and Linda Jean Carpenter: "Women in Athletics: A Status Report," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, August 1985, 56: 30-34; "As the Years Go By - Coaching Opportunities in the 1990s," ibid., March 1992, 63: 36-41; and "The Status of Women in Intercollegiate Athletics," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 111-18.
207. To the dismay of many women in the field, the "merger" of departments has increased the number of male administrators and coaches overseeing female activities nationwide. See the following articles by R. Vivian Acosta and Linda Jean Carpenter: "Women in Athletics: A Status Report," J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, August 1985, 56: 30-34; "As the Years Go By - Coaching Opportunities in the 1990s," ibid., March 1992, 63: 36-41; and "The Status of Women in Intercollegiate Athletics," in Birrell and Cole, Women, Sport, and Culture (n. 56), pp. 111-18.