General motors and the demise of streetcars

Transportation Quarterly

Volumn 51, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 45-66

  Slater, Cliff ^a  

^a Reason Foundation   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUSES; ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS; ELECTRIC VEHICLES; LAWS AND LEGISLATION; PUBLIC POLICY;

ELECTRIC STREETCARS;

MASS TRANSPORTATION;

EID: 0031153318     PISSN: 02789434     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Press Release. Taken for a Ride Exposes a Driving Force Behind the Death of Public Transit in America, August 6 on P.O.V. (http://mumford.pbs.org/pov/press/910.html 01/25/97). Of course, what Charles Wilson, former head of GM actually said was. "For years I thought what was good for our country was good for General Motors, and vice versa." In confirmation hearing before the Senate Committee on Armed Services. January 15, 1953, quoted In Platt, Suzy, "Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations from the Library of Congress." Congressional Quarterly (1992): 71.
2. Press Release. Taken for a Ride Exposes a Driving Force Behind the Death of Public Transit in America, August 6 on P.O.V. (http://mumford.pbs.org/pov/press/910.html 01/25/97). Of course, what Charles Wilson, former head of GM actually said was. "For years I thought what was good for our country was good for General Motors, and vice versa." In confirmation hearing before the Senate Committee on Armed Services. January 15, 1953, quoted In Platt, Suzy, "Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations from the Library of Congress." Congressional Quarterly (1992): 71.
3. See P.O.V. Interactive home page http://wwwO.pbs.org/pov/cfe/gen.html (as 1/24/96).
4. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
5. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
6. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
7. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
8. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
9. "Streetcars Undesired/TV fllmmakers make a case: GM took us for a ride." Newsday. August 6, 1996; "How GM wrecked the Streetcars." The Tampa Tribune, August 6, 1996; "Corporations, not Government. Drove Mass Transit Off the Cliff." The Dallas Morning News, August 6, 1996; "Trolley Tale to Shape Our Cities," The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 1996; "Fine Tuning." The New Orleans Times-Picayune. August 4.1996: "American asphalt: PBS explores the paving of a nation." The Star-Ledger, Newark, NJ. 08/06/1996.
10. Heartland of America. Frontline documentary #1201, 1993.
11. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings before the subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly of the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate on S. 1167, Part 3, Ground Transportation Industries, 93rd. Congress. 2nd session. 1974, p. 1839.
12. Ibid., Part 4A - Appendix to Part 4, p. A-32.
13. Ibid., Part 3, Ground Transportation Industries, p. 1844.
14. Ibid., p. 1844.
15. Ibid., p. 1839.
16. Ibid., pp. 1784 and 1786.
17. Ibid., pp. 1787 and 1791. However, the Key System rail lines were not removed until 1959 whereas the Parsons, Brinckerhoff report recommending the transbay tunnel route was delivered to the BART Rapid Transit District in January 1956 with much publicity. ( Hall, Peter, Great Planning Disasters, University of California Press, 1980, p. 111.) It is difficult to believe that Alioto was not aware of that.
18. Ibid., pp. 1787 and 1791. However, the Key System rail lines were not removed until 1959 whereas the Parsons, Brinckerhoff report recommending the transbay tunnel route was delivered to the BART Rapid Transit District in January 1956 with much publicity. ( Hall, Peter, Great Planning Disasters, University of California Press, 1980, p. 111.) It is difficult to believe that Alioto was not aware of that.
19. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, pp. 1914-5.
20. Mintz, Morion, "GM Said to Ruin City Rail Systems," Washington Post, February 25, 1974. p. 1: Also carried in Los Angeles Times. February 24, 1974. p. 1; "Big Three Wrecked Mass Transit for Auto Profit, Study Says," Cleveland Press: February 25, 1974; "Report Accuses Auto Industry of Stifling Mass Transit." Boston Globe, March 3, 1974.
21. Mintz, Morion, "GM Said to Ruin City Rail Systems," Washington Post, February 25, 1974. p. 1: Also carried in Los Angeles Times. February 24, 1974. p. 1; "Big Three Wrecked Mass Transit for Auto Profit, Study Says," Cleveland Press: February 25, 1974; "Report Accuses Auto Industry of Stifling Mass Transit." Boston Globe, March 3, 1974.
22. Mintz, Morion, "GM Said to Ruin City Rail Systems," Washington Post, February 25, 1974. p. 1: Also carried in Los Angeles Times. February 24, 1974. p. 1; "Big Three Wrecked Mass Transit for Auto Profit, Study Says," Cleveland Press: February 25, 1974; "Report Accuses Auto Industry of Stifling Mass Transit." Boston Globe, March 3, 1974.
23. Mintz, Morion, "GM Said to Ruin City Rail Systems," Washington Post, February 25, 1974. p. 1: Also carried in Los Angeles Times. February 24, 1974. p. 1; "Big Three Wrecked Mass Transit for Auto Profit, Study Says," Cleveland Press: February 25, 1974; "Report Accuses Auto Industry of Stifling Mass Transit." Boston Globe, March 3, 1974.
24. Hilton, George W. and John F. Due, The Electric Interurban Railways in America, Stanford University Press, 1964.
25. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4, pp. 2204-9, 2214-21, and 2228-34.
26. Cudahy, Brian, Cash, Tokens and Transfers: A History of Urban Mass Transit in America. Fordham University Press. 1990, p. 187.
27. Bottles, Scott L., Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City. University of California Press, 1987.
28. Wilkins, Van, "The Conspiracy Revisited," New Electric Railway Journal Summer 1995.
29. Fischler, Stanley I., Moving Millions: An Inside Look at Mass Transit, Harper & Row, 1979, p. 79.
30. St. Clair, David J., The Motorization of American Cities, Praeger. 1986; Carson, Robert B., Whatever Happened to the Trolley? A Micro Historical and Economic Study of the Rise and Decline of Street Railroads in Syracuse. New York. 1860-1941. University Press of America, 1977; Goddard, Stephen B., Getting There; The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century, Basic Books, 1994. p. 135; Whitt, J. Allen, Urban Elites and Mass Transportation, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 47.
31. St. Clair, David J., The Motorization of American Cities, Praeger. 1986; Carson, Robert B., Whatever Happened to the Trolley? A Micro Historical and Economic Study of the Rise and Decline of Street Railroads in Syracuse. New York. 1860-1941. University Press of America, 1977; Goddard, Stephen B., Getting There; The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century, Basic Books, 1994. p. 135; Whitt, J. Allen, Urban Elites and Mass Transportation, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 47.
32. St. Clair, David J., The Motorization of American Cities, Praeger. 1986; Carson, Robert B., Whatever Happened to the Trolley? A Micro Historical and Economic Study of the Rise and Decline of Street Railroads in Syracuse. New York. 1860-1941. University Press of America, 1977; Goddard, Stephen B., Getting There; The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century, Basic Books, 1994. p. 135; Whitt, J. Allen, Urban Elites and Mass Transportation, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 47.
33. St. Clair, David J., The Motorization of American Cities, Praeger. 1986; Carson, Robert B., Whatever Happened to the Trolley? A Micro Historical and Economic Study of the Rise and Decline of Street Railroads in Syracuse. New York. 1860-1941. University Press of America, 1977; Goddard, Stephen B., Getting There; The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century, Basic Books, 1994. p. 135; Whitt, J. Allen, Urban Elites and Mass Transportation, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 47.
34. Wilson, Jane. "Who Killed Mr. Red Car?" Buzz Magazine. August 1994.
35. A founder of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). once married to Jane Fonda and currently a California Senator. He is quoted in Wilson, Jane, "Who Killed Mr. Red Car?" August 1994.
36. Kwitny, Jonathan, "The Great Transportation Conspiracy," Harper's, February 1981. pp. 14 and 21.
37. Von Hoffman, Nicholas, "Who Eliminated Old Transit Lines?" Chicago Tribune. March 31, 1974.
38. Quoted in Fischler, Stanley I., Moving Millions: An Inside Look at Mass Transit, Harper & Row. 1979, p. 97.
39. Bookshelf '94. (a CD-ROM product) Microsoft Corp.
40. United States v. National City Lines. Inc. et al. (Civil) 1955 Trade Cases, ¶ 68,158, and 1954 Trade Cases ¶ 67,917 67,964 and 1950-1 Trade Cases ¶ 62,875.
41. Mencken, H. L. "A Neglected Anniversary." New York Evening Mail. December 29, 1917. Reprinted In Rodgers, Marion Elizabeth, The Impossible H. L. Mencken, Doubleday, 1991, p. 612.
42. Mencken, H. L. "A Neglected Anniversary." New York Evening Mail. December 29, 1917. Reprinted In Rodgers, Marion Elizabeth, The Impossible H. L. Mencken, Doubleday, 1991, p. 612.
43. Urban populations grew an average of 2.5% annually 1910-30.
44. "The First Jitney Bus," Jitney Bus. July 1915.
45. "Traffic and Transportation." Electric Railway Journal XLVI. no. 5. (July 31, 1915): 206.
46. Eckert, Ross D. and Hilton, George W., "The Jitneys," Journal of Law and Economics 15 (1972).
47. Jackson, Walter, "The Past, Present and Future of the Motor Omnibus," Bus Transportation (January 1922): 62.
48. Doolittle, F.W., "The Economics of Jitney Bus Operation," Journal of Political Economy. (1915): 687.
49. Saltzman, Arthur, and Solomon, Richard., "Jitney Operations in the United States," Transportation Research Record, no. 449, p. 67.
50. Author's estimate from data in Fogelson, Robert M., The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930, Harvard University Press, 1967, Tables 18-22.
51. Strong, Sydney, "A Nickel a Ride," Survey. March 13, 1915, p. 663.
52. "Bus News From Everywhere," Motor Bus (June 1916): 449 and 457; "Digest of Jitney Ordinances," Electric Railway Journal XLVI. no. 8 (August 21, 1915): 314-7.
53. "Bus News From Everywhere," Motor Bus (June 1916): 449 and 457; "Digest of Jitney Ordinances," Electric Railway Journal XLVI. no. 8 (August 21, 1915): 314-7.
54. "Non-Essential Jitneys Must Go," Electric Railway Journal 52, no. 17 (October 18, 1918): 745-6.
55. McShane, Clay, "Transforming the Use of Street Space: A Look at the Revolution in Street Pavements," Journal of Urban History 5 (May 1979): 279-307.
56. Jacksonville, Florida, experienced bus speeds 40% faster than streetcars. Transit Journal 79, no. 6 (July 1935): 219; New Bedford, Mass, reported their new buses as 60% faster on average than streetcars. Transit Journal 82, no. 8 (August 1938): 276.
57. Jacksonville, Florida, experienced bus speeds 40% faster than streetcars. Transit Journal 79, no. 6 (July 1935): 219; New Bedford, Mass, reported their new buses as 60% faster on average than streetcars. Transit Journal 82, no. 8 (August 1938): 276.
58. T. E. Mitten, president of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co. quoted in Barrett, Paul, The Automobile and Urban Transit: The Formation of Public Policy in Chicago, 1900-1930. Temple University Press, 1983, pp. 174 and 58.
59. Bibbins, J. Rowland, "The Growing Transport Problem of the Masses," National Municipal Review. (August, 1929): 519.
60. "At Last...The Diesel Turns the Corner," Bus Transportation (July 15, 1936): 292.
61. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings. Part 3. pp. 1829-31.
62. Streetcar track mileage reached Its peak a little earlier in 1917 and declined from then on. Investors could not be found to fund further growth.
63. For service every 15 minutes with a 33% average passenger load, the depreciation and interest costs per passenger were 15 times that of a heavily-used city line carrying full loads with service every 3 minutes.
64. Jackson, Walter, "Trolley or Bus in the Small City: A Problem Largely Dependent on Paving Charges," American City (September 1924): 206.
65. Ibid.
66. "How They Ride In 1,000 Cities." Bus Transportation. January, 1938, p. 54.
67. Flink, James J., America Adopts the Automobile. 1895-1910, MIT Press, 1970, p 55.
68. Burness, Tad, Cars of the Early Twenties, Chilton, 1968, p. 110.
69. Barker, T. C. and Robbins, Michael, A History of London Transport, Vols. 1, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1963, p. 233.
70. Sleeman, J., "The Rise and Decline of Municipal Transport," Scottish Journal of Political Economy 9 (1962): 53-5.
71. "Local Bus Service Continues to Expand," Bus Transportation (January 1930): 74-5; and Historical Statistics of the United States. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975.
72. "Local Bus Service Continues to Expand," Bus Transportation (January 1930): 74-5; and Historical Statistics of the United States. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975.
73. McCarter, Thomas N., One Phase of a Jerseyman's Activities, Country Life Press, 1933, p. 193.
74. "Traffic and Transportation: Jitney Jottings," Electric Railway Journal (August 21, 1915): 333.
75. Ibid. (April 3, 1915): 691.
76. Electric Railway Journal (February 5, 1916): 291.
77. Ibid. (September 11, 1915): 467.
78. Conlon, Leo F., H. C. Eddy, and Frank J. Daly, "In New Jersey the Motor Bus Is Used Very Largely for Handling Short-Haul Urban Traffic," Bus Transportation (August 1922): 427.
79. Jackson, Walter, "The Place of the Bus - IV," Electric Railway Journal (May 29, 1920): 1088.
80. McCarter, p. 299.
81. Eddy, H. C., New Jersey PUC, "The Street Railway Outlook," Electric Railway Journal (October 4, 1919): 691.
82. McCarter, p. 310.
83. McCarter. p. 319.
84. "Court Fight on Buses," Electric Railway Journal (June 12, 1920): 1229.
85. "Transportation Notes - Reargument on Jitney Case Refused." Electric Railway Journal (January 21, 1922): 137.
86. Conlon, Eddy, and Daly, "In New Jersey."
87. Ibid., p. 431
88. Ibid., p. 427
89. "A Review of How the Buses Are Handling Passengers During the New Jersey Transportation Controversy," Bus Transportation (September 1923): 414.
90. Letter to New Jersey Governor George S. Silzer of December 18,1923 quoted in McCarter, One Phase of a Jerseyman's Activities, p. 354.
91. "Eight-Cent Jersey Fare," Electric Railway Journal (October 15, 1921): 717.
92. "Auto Immeasurably Inferior," Electric Railway Journal (February 4, 1922): 217.
93. "New Jersey Transportation Tangle Grows More Acute." Bus Transportation (September 1923): 513
94. McCarter, One Phase of a Jersey man's Activities, p. 348 and 353.
95. Ibid., p. 348.
96. Ibid., p. 352.
97. "A Review of How the Buses Are Handling Passengers," p. 413.
98. Conlon, Leo F., New Jersey PUC, "Transportation Conditions in New Jersey Becoming Stabilized," Bus Transportation (October 1925): 507.
99. "New Jersey Transportation Tangle Grows More Acute," p. 513
100. Conlon, Eddy, and Daly, "In New Jersey," p. 429.
101. McCarter, One Phase of a Jerseyman's Activities, p. 357-8.
102. "Electric Railways Now Operate 1,914 Buses Over 2,405 Miles of Route," Bus Transportation (October 1924): 447-8.
103. Conlon, "Transportation Conditions." The total of 1,623 does not include the 334 touring car jitneys operating in Atlantic City and Hoboken.
104. "A Review of How the Buses Are Handling Passengers," p. 414; and Historical Statistics of the United States, p. 721. This is corroborated by bus operating data given earlier showing New Jersey local buses In 1922 were 27% of the U.S. total.
105. "A Review of How the Buses Are Handling Passengers," p. 414; and Historical Statistics of the United States, p. 721. This is corroborated by bus operating data given earlier showing New Jersey local buses In 1922 were 27% of the U.S. total.
106. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4A, p. A-30.
107. Brennan, Joe. Local Bus Companies of Manhattan. 1966. At http://k2nesoft.com/nei.vs/nyc/busroutes-html.
108. "Yellow Truck & Coach." Fortune, July 1936, p. 110.
109. Quoted in Clark, Ezra W., "Some Factors Which Must Be Considered in Bus Transportation," Bus Transportation (January 1922): 14.
110. Quoted by GM in its Senate testimony In The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings. Part 4A, p. A-118.
111. "New York Rapidly Takes to Buses," Bus Transportation (February 1935): 58.
112. "What's Happening on Madison Avenue," Transit Journal (May 1935): 145.
113. "New Yorkers Prefer Buses," Bus Transportation (December 1934): 453.
114. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4A, pp. A-3 and Part 3, p. 1844.
115. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4A, pp. A-3 and Part 3, p. 1844.
116. "Pacific Electric Railway Experiments with Motor Bus Feeders," Electric Railway Journal XLVIII, no. 8 (August 10. 1916): 314; and "Flexible Buses in Larger Sizes," Electric Railway Journal 50 (September 29, 1917): 589.
117. "Pacific Electric Railway Experiments with Motor Bus Feeders," Electric Railway Journal XLVIII, no. 8 (August 10. 1916): 314; and "Flexible Buses in Larger Sizes," Electric Railway Journal 50 (September 29, 1917): 589.
118. "The Pacific Electric Finds a Place for the Bus," Bus Transportation (May 1923): 229-32. See p. 230 for a map showing the lines being replaced.
119. Ibid., pp. 229-32.
120. Ibid., p. 231.
121. "Use of Buses Recommended In Los Angeles," Bus Transportation (May 1923): 232.
122. "414 Buses Now Used by Pacific Electric Railway," Electric Railway Journal (August 1931): 431 and 437.
123. There were two separate streetcar systems in Los Angeles. The Yellow Car of the Los Angeles Railway and the famed Red Cars of Pacific Electric Railway, the nation's largest interurban system, owned by Southern Pacific and never associated with National City Lines according to Hilton (see The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4, p. 2231.) and Wllkins. "The Conspiracy Revisited," available at the Electric Railway Historical Association of Southern California website (www.erha.org).
124. There were two separate streetcar systems in Los Angeles. The Yellow Car of the Los Angeles Railway and the famed Red Cars of Pacific Electric Railway, the nation's largest interurban system, owned by Southern Pacific and never associated with National City Lines according to Hilton (see The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Part 4, p. 2231.) and Wllkins. "The Conspiracy Revisited," available at the Electric Railway Historical Association of Southern California website (www.erha.org).
125. Post, Robert C., Street Railways and the Growth of Los Angeles, Golden West Books, 1989, p. 152.
126. Historical Statistics of the U.S. Series Q 241 and 244, p. 721.
127. Post, Street Railways, pp. 152 and 156.
128. Wilson, "Who Killed Mr. Red Car?"
129. Adler, Sy, "The Transformation of the Pacific Electric Railway: Bradford Snell, Roger Rabbit, and the Politics of Transportation in Los Angeles," Urban Affairs Quarterly 27, no. 1 (September 1991): 51, Adler is an associate professor of urban studies at Portland State University.
130. "The Cost of Bus Operation," Electric Railway Journal XLV. no. 9 (February 27, 1915).
131. Cudahy, Cash, Tokens and Transfers, p. 190. "...there was wide agreement In the late 1940s that a new diesel bus was considerably cheaper to operate and maintain than a streetcar, old or new."
132. Jackson, Walter, "The Past. Present and Future of the Motor Omnibus," Bus Transportation (January 1922): 62.
133. Dewees, Donald N., "The Decline of the American Street Railways," Traffic Quarterly 24, no. 4 (October 1970): 568.
134. "British Body Reports Unfavorably on Tramways." Electric Railway Journal (February 1931): 109-10.
135. Potter, Harold E. "Looping the Loop...at a Profit," Transit Journal 82, no. 8 (August 1938): 276-7, 299.
136. "Yellow Truck & Coach."
137. Sleeman, J., "The Rise and Decline of Municipal Transport," Scottish Journal of Political Economy 9 (1962): 52. The 1930 British Royal Commission on Transportation concurred, stating "the cost of running a large-capacity omnibus is no higher than that for running a (streetcar)." quoted in "British Body Reports Unfavorably," p. 110.
138. Sleeman, J., "The Rise and Decline of Municipal Transport," Scottish Journal of Political Economy 9 (1962): 52. The 1930 British Royal Commission on Transportation concurred, stating "the cost of running a large-capacity omnibus is no higher than that for running a (streetcar)." quoted in "British Body Reports Unfavorably," p. 110.
139. "San Francisco Receives Over-all Traffic Plan," The American City (March 1949): 133.
140. "Transit IIIs Aren't Always Fatal." Business Week, July 22, 1961, p. 84.
141. "Editorial," Honolulu Advertiser. November 1, 1933, quoted in "Honolulu Gets a Ne%v Deal." Bus Transportation (March 1934): 88.
142. "Editorial," Honolulu Advertiser. November 1, 1933, quoted in "Honolulu Gets a Ne%v Deal." Bus Transportation (March 1934): 88.
143. The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings. Part 4, p. 2205.
144. Due, John F., "An Empirical Study of Abandonment Decisions," Journal of Finance 14, no. 3 (September 1959): 363.
145. Ritchie, John A., "The Future of the Motor Bus." Bus Transportation (May 1925).